Verbs

The inflection of the Verb is called its Conjugation.

Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number

Through its conjugation the Verb expresses Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, and Number.

The Voices are two: Active and Passive.

The Moods are four: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. The Infinitive is strictly the locative case of an abstract noun, expressing the action of the verb (§ 451 ). The Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative are called Finite Moods in distinction from the Infinitive.

The Tenses are six, viz.:—

For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future.

For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.

The Indicative Mood has all six tenses, but the Subjunctive has no future or future perfect, and the Imperative has only the present and the future. The Infinitive has the present, perfect, and future.

The Persons are three: First, Second, and Third.

The Numbers are two: Singular and Plural.

Noun and Adjective Forms

The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included in the inflection of the Latin Verb:—

Four Participles, The Participles are adjectives in inflection and meaning, but have the power of verbs in construction and in distinguishing time. viz.:—

Active: the Present and Future Participles.

Passive: the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive. The Gerundive is also used as an adjective of necessity , duty , etc. (§ 158 . d ). In late use it became a Future Passive Participle.

The Gerund: this is in form a neuter noun of the second declension, used only in the oblique cases of the singular.

The Supine: this is in form a verbal noun of the fourth declension in the accusative (-um) and dative or ablative (-ū） Originally locative. singular.

SIGNIFICATION OF THE FORMS OF THE VERB

Voices

The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally correspond to the active and passive in English; but—

The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning:— ferrō accingor, I gird myself with my sword.

Turnus vertitur, Turnus turns (himself).

induitur vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes.

This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and is doubtless a survival of the original meaning of the passive (p. 76, footnote 2).

Many verbs are passive in form, but active or reflexive in meaning. These are called Deponents (§ 190): That is, verbs which have laid aside ( dēpōnere ) the passive meaning . as, hortor, I exhort; sequor, I follow.

Some verbs with active meaning have the passive form in the perfect tenses; these are called Semi-Deponents: as, audeō , audēre , ausus sum, dare.

Moods

The Moods are used as follows:—

The Indicative Mood is used for most direct assertions and interrogations: as, valēsne ? valeō, are you well? I am well.

The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, conditions, and various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English Indicative; frequently by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should; The Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative; and we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb with more definite meaning. Thus , I may write is often not scrībam (subjunctive), but licet mihi scrībere ; I can write is possum scrībere ; I would write is scrībam , scrīberem , or scrībere velim ( vellem ); I should write , ( if , etc.), scrīberem ( sī ) ..., or (implying duty) oportet mē scrībere . sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive; sometimes by the Infinitive; and often by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions. A few characteristic examples of its use are the following:— eāmus, let us go; nē abeat, let him not depart.

adsum ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see).

tū nē quaesieris, do not thou inquire.

beātus sīs, may you be blessed.

quid morer, why should I delay?

nesciō quid scrībam, I know not what to write.

sī moneam, audiat, if I should warn, he would hear.

The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command; but the Subjunctive is often used instead (§§ 439, 450):— līber estō, he shall be free.

nē ossa legitō, do not gather the bones.

The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject or complement of another verb (§§ 452, 456. N.). In special constructions it takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood in English (see Indirect Discourse, § 580 ff.). For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 436 ff.

Participles

The Participles are used as follows:—

The Present Participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same meaning and use as the English participle in -ing; as, vocāns, calling; legentēs, reading. (For its inflection, see egēns , § 118.)

The Future Participle (ending in -ūrus) is oftenest used to express what is likely or about to happen: as, rēctūrus, about to rule; audītūrus, about to hear. With the tenses of esse , to be , it forms the First Periphrastic Conjugation (see § 195 ): as, urbs est cāsūra , the city is about to fall; mānsūrus eram , I was going to stay.

The Perfect Participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses:—

It is sometimes equivalent to the English perfect passive participle: as, tēctus, sheltered; acceptus, accepted; ictus, having been struck; and often has simply an adjective meaning: as, acceptus, acceptable.

It is used with the verb to be ( esse ) to form certain tenses of the passive: as, vocātus est, he was (has been) called. There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive Participle in Latin. For substitutes see §§ 492 , 493.

The Gerundive (ending in -ndus), has two uses:—

It is often used as an adjective implying obligation, necessity, or propriety (ought or must): as, audiendus est, he must be heard. When thus used with the tenses of the verb to be ( esse ) it forms the Second Periphrastic Conjugation: dēligendus erat , he ought to have been chosen (§ 196 ).

In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same meaning as the Gerund (cf. § 159. a), though its construction is different. (For examples, see § 503 ff.)

Gerund and Supine

The Gerund and Supine are used as follows:—

The Gerund is a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English verbal noun in -ing (§ 502): as, loquendī causā, for the sake of speaking. The Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. A corresponding nominative is supplied by the Infinitive: thus, scrībere est ūtile , writing (to write) is useful; but, ars scrībendī , the art of writing.

The Supine is in form a noun of the fourth declension (§ 94. b), found only in the accusative ending in -tum, -sum, and the dative or ablative ending in -tū, -sū.

The Supine in -um is used after verbs and the Supine in -ū after adjectives (§§ 509, 510):— vēnit spectātum, he came to see; mīrābile dictū, wonderful to tell.

Tenses of the Finite Verb

The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same meaning as the corresponding tenses in English:—

Of continued action, 1. PRESENT: scrībō, I write, I am writing, I do write.

2. IMPERFECT: scrībēbam, I wrote, I was writing, I did write.

3. FUTURE: scrībam, I shall write.

Of completed action, 4. PERFECT: scrīpsī, I have written, I wrote.

5. PLUPERFECT: scrīpseram, I had written.

6. FUTURE PERFECT: scrīpserō, I shall have written.

The Perfect Indicative has two separate uses,—the Perfect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite).

The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed in present time, and corresponds to the English perfect with have: as, scrīpsī, I have written.

The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the English past or preterite and the Greek aorist: as, scrīpsit, he wrote.

The Tenses of the Subjunctive are chiefly used in dependent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses; but have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax).

For the use of Tenses in the Imperative, see §§ 448, 449.

PERSONAL ENDINGS

Verbs have regular terminations Most of these seem to be fragments of old pronouns, whose signification is thus added to that of the verb-stem (cf. § 36 ). But the ending -minī in the second person plural of the passive is perhaps a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek - menos , and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. The personal ending -nt is probably connected with the participial nt- (nominative -ns ). for each of the three Persons, both singular and plural, active and passive. The Passive is an old Middle Voice, peculiar to the Italic and Celtic languages, and of uncertain origin. These are:

The Perfect Indicative active has the special terminations Of these terminations -ī is not a personal ending, but appears to represent an Indo-European tense-sign -ai of the Perfect Middle. In -is-tī and -is-tis , -tī and -tis are personal endings; for -is -, see § 169 . c. N. In -i-t and -i-mus , -t and -mus are personal endings, and i is of uncertain origin. Both -ērunt and -ēre are also of doubtful origin, but the former contains the personal ending -nt . :—

The Imperative has the following terminations:—

FORMS OF THE VERB

The Three Stems

The forms of the verb may be referred to three stems, called (1) the Present, (2) the Perfect, and (3) the Supine stem.

On the Present stem are formed— The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, Active and Passive.

The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Passive.

The Imperative, Active and Passive.

The Present Infinitive, Active and Passive.

The Present Participle, the Gerundive, and the Gerund.

On the Perfect stem are formed— The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active.

The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active.

The Perfect Infinitive Active.

On the Supine stem are formed The Perfect Passive and Future Active Participles and the Supine, though strictly noun-forms, each with its own suffix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t) the same and in suffering the same phonetic change ( t to s , see § 15 . 5). Hence these forms, along with several sets of derivatives (in -tor , -tūra , etc., see § 238 . b. N.1), were felt by the Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated with the Supine Stem. Thus, from pingō , we have pictum , pictus , pictūrus , pictor , pictūra ; from rīdeō , rīsum (for † rīd-tum ), rīsus (part.), rīsus (noun), rīsūrus , rīsiō , rīsor , rīsibilis . —

The Perfect Passive Participle, which combines with the forms of the verb sum, be, to make—

The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive.

The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive.

The Perfect Infinitive Passive.

The Future Active Participle, which combines with esse to make the Future Active Infinitive.

The Supine in -um and -ū. The Supine in -um combines with īrī to make the Future Passive Infinitive (§ 203. a). The Perfect Participle with fore also makes a Future Passive Infinitive (as, amātus fore ). For fore ( futūrum esse ） ut with the subjunctive, see § 569 . 3. a.

VERB-ENDINGS

Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts:

The STEM (see § 24). This is either the root or a modification or development of it.

The ENDING, consisting of—

the Signs of Mood and Tense (see §§ 168, 169).

the Personal Ending (see § 163).

Thus in the verb vocā-bā-s, you were calling, the root is VOC, modified into the verb-stem vocā-, which by the addition of the ending -bās becomes the imperfect tense vocābās; and this ending consists of the tense-sign bā- and the personal ending (-s) of the second person singular.

The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for mood and tense combined with personal endings, are—

For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of the verb is here added.

A long vowel is shortened before the personal endings -m (-r), -t, -nt (-ntur): as, ame-t (for older amē-t ), habe-t (for habē-t ), mone-nt , mone-ntur .

The tenses of the Present System are made from the Present Stem as follows:— The conjugation of a verb consists of separate formations from a root, gradually grouped together, systematized, and supplemented by new formations made on old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of the forms were inherited from the parent speech; others were developed in the course of the history of the Italic dialects or of the Latin language itself.

In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly to the present stem. Thus,—present stem arā-: arā-s , arā-mus, arā-tis.

In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bās, etc. (originally a complete verb) is added to the present stem: as, arā-bam, arā-bās, arā-bāmus. The form † bam was apparently an aorist of the Indo-European root BHU (cf. fuī , futūrus , fu/w , English be , been ), and meant I was. This was added to a complete word, originally a case of a verbal noun, as in I was a-seeing; hence vidē-bam . The form probably began in the Second or Third Conjugation and was extended to the others. The a was at first long, but was shortened in certain forms (§ 167 ).

In the Future Indicative of the First and Second Conjugations a similar suffix, -bō, -bis, etc., is added to the present stem: as, arā-bō, arā-bis, monē-bō . The form † bō was probably a present tense of the root BHU, with a future meaning, and was affixed to a noun-form as described in b. N.

In the Future Indicative of the Third and Fourth Conjugations the terminations -am, -ēs, etc. (as, teg-am, teg-ēs, audi-am, audi-ēs) are really subjunctive endings used in a future sense (see e). The vowel was originally long throughout. For shortening, see § 167.

In the Present Subjunctive the personal endings were added to a form of the present stem ending in ē- or ā-, which was shortened in certain forms (§ 167). Thus, ame-m , amē-s , tegā-mus , tega-nt . The vowel ē (seen in the First Conjugation: as, am-ë-s ) is an inherited subjunctive mood-sign. It appears to be the thematic vowel e (§ 174 . 1) lengthened. The ā of the other conjugations ( mone-ā-s , reg-ā-s , audi-ā-s ) is of uncertain origin. In a few irregular verbs a Present Subjunctive in -im , -īs , etc. occurs: as, sim , sīs , sīmus , velim , velīs , etc. This is an old optative, ī being a form of the IndoEuropean optative mood-sign yē- (cf. siem , siēs , siet , § 170 . b. N.). The vowel has been shortened in the first and third persons singular and the third person plural.

In the Imperfect Subjunctive the suffix -rem, -rēs, etc. is added to the present stem: as, amā-rem , amā-rēs , monē-rem , tege-rem , audī-rem . The stem element -rē - is of uncertain origin and is not found outside of Italic. The r is doubtless the aorist sign s (cf. es-se-m , es-sē-s ) changed to r between two vowels (§ 15 . 4). The ē is probably the subjunctive mood-sign (see e ).

The tenses of the Perfect System in the active voice are made from the Perfect Stem as follows:—

In the Perfect Indicative the endings -ī, -istī, etc. are added directly to the perfect stem: as, amāv-istī , tēx-istis .

In the Pluperfect Indicative the suffix -eram, -erās, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amāv-eram , monu-erās , tēx-erat . This seems to represent an older † -is-ām etc. formed on the analogy of the Future Perfect in -erō (older † -is-ō : see c below) and influenced by eram (imperfect of sum ) in comparison with erō (future of sum ).

In the Future Perfect the suffix -erō, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amāv-erō , monu-eris , tēx-erit . This formation was originally a subjunctive of the s- aorist, ending probably in † -is-ō . The -is - is doubtless the same as that seen in the second person singular of the perfect indicative ( vīd-is-tī ), in the perfect infinitive ( vīd-is-se ), and in the pluperfect subjunctive ( vīd-is-sem ), s being the aorist sign and i probably an old stem vowel.

In the Perfect Subjunctive the suffix -erim, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amāv-erim , monu-eris , tēx-erit . This formation was originally an optative of the s- aorist ( -er - for older -is -, as in the future perfect, see c above). The i after r is the optative mood-sign ī shortened (see § 168 . e. N.2). Forms in -īs , -īt , -īmus , -ītis , are sometimes found. The shortening in -ĭs , -ĭmus , -ĭtis , is due to confusion with the future perfect.

In the Pluperfect Subjunctive the suffix -issem, -issēs, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amāv-issem , monu-issēs , tēx-isset . Apparently this tense was formed on the analogy of the pluperfect indicative in † -is-ām (later -er-am , see b ), and influenced by essem (earlier † essēm ) in its relation to eram (earlier † esām ). The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the root (or verb-stem) and the personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a language developed like the Latin. All true verb-forms are the result, as shown above, of composition; that is, of adding to the root or the stem either personal endings or fully developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminations), or of imitation of such processes. Thus vidēbāmus is made by adding to vidē- , originally a significant word or a form conceived as such, a full verbal form † bāmus , not by inserting -bā - between vidē- and -mus (§ 168 . b ).

The Verb Sum

The verb sum, be, is both irregular and defective, having no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future.

Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its importance for the inflection of other verbs.

PRINCIPAL PARTS: Present Indicative sum , Present Infinitive esse , Perfect Indicative fuī , Future Participle futūrus .

For essem , essēs , etc., forem , forēs, foret , forent , are often used; so fore for futūrus esse .

The Present Participle, which would regularly be †sōns, Compare Sankrit sant , Greek w)/n . appears in the adjective īn-sōns, innocent, and in a modified form in ab-sēns, prae-sēns . The simple form ēns is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, in the forms ēns, being; entia, things which are. Old forms are:—Indicative: Future, escit , escunt (strictly an inchoative present, see § 263 . 1).

Subjunctive: Present, siem, siēs, siet, sient; fuam, fuās, fuat, fuant; Perfect, fūvimus; Pluperfect, fūvisset.

The root of the verb sum is ES, which in the imperfect is changed to ER (see § 15. 4), and in many forms is shortened to S. Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen in the following table,— the Sanskrit syām corresponding to the Latin sim ( siem ):—

The Perfect and Supine stems, fu-, fut-, are kindred with the Greek e)/fu, and with Nhe English be.

The Four Conjugations

Verbs are classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distinguished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present Infinitive Active:—

The Principal Parts

The Principal Parts of a verb, showing the three stems which determine its conjugation throughout, are—

The Present Indicative (as, amō ), showing the Present Stem.

The Present Infinitive (as, amā-re ), showing the Present Stem.

The Perfect Indicative (as, amāv-ī ), showing the Perfect Stem.

The neuter of the Perfect Participle (as, amāt-um ), or, if that form is not in use, the Future Active Participle ( amāt-ūrus ), showing the Supine Stem.

The regular forms of the Four Conjugations are seen in the following:—

First Conjugation:— Active, amō , amāre , amāvī , amātum, love.

Passive, amor, amārī , amātus .

Present Stem amā-, Perfect Stem amāv-, Supine Stem amāt-.

Second Conjugation:— Active, dēleō , dēlēre , dēlēvī , dēlētum, blot out.

Passive, dēleor , dēlērī , dēlētus .

Present Stem dēlē-, Perfect Stem dēlēv-, Supine Stem dēlēt-.

In the Second conjugation, however, the characteristic ē- rarely appears in the perfect and perfect participle. The common type is, therefore:— Active, moneō , monēre , monuī , monitum, warn.

Passive, moneor , monērī , monitus .

Present Stem monē-, Perfect Stem monu-, Supine Stem monit-.

Third Conjugation:— Active, tegō , tegĕre , tēxī , tēctum, cover.

Passive, tegor , tegī , tēctus .

Present Stem tegĕ-, Perfect Stem tēx-, Supine Stem tēct-.

Fourth Conjugation:— Active, audiō, audīre , audīvī , audītum, hear.

Passive, audior , audīrī , audītus .

Present Stem audī-, Perfect Stem audīv-, Supine Stem audīt-.

In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two or more different conjugations (cf. § 189):— 1, 2, domō , domāre , domuī , domitum, subdue.

2, 3, maneō , manēre , mānsī , mānsum, remain.

3, 4, petō , petĕre , petīvī , petītum, seek.

4, 3, vinciō , vincīre , vīnxī , vīnctum, bind.

Such verbs are referred to the conjugation to which the Present sten conforms.

Present Stem

The parent (Indo-European) speech from which Latin comes had two main classes of verbs:—

Thematic Verbs, in which a so-called thematic vowel (e/o, in Latin i/u) appeared between the root and the personal ending: as, leg-i-tis (for †leg-e-tes ), leg-u-nt (for †leg-o-nti ). Cf. le/g-e-te, le/g-o-men ; Doric le/g-o-nti .

Athematic Verbs, in which the personal endings were added directly to the root: as, es-t , es-tis (root ES) Cf. e)s-ti/, e)s-te/ (see p. 83, note). , dă-mus (dō, root DA), fer-t ( ferō , root FER).

Of the Athematic Verbs few survive in Latin, and these are counted as irregular, except such as have been forced into one of the four “regular” conjugations. Even the irregular verbs have admitted many forms of the thematic type.

Of the Thematic Verbs a large number remain. These may be divided into two classes:—

Verbs which preserve the thematic vowel eor o (in Latin i or u) before the personal endings.—These make up the Third Conjugation. The present stem is formed in various ways (§ 176), but always ends in a short vowel e/o (Latin i/u ). Examples are tegō (stem ( tege/o- ), sternimus (stem ( sterne/o- ) for †ster-no-mos, plectunt (stem ( plecte/o- ) for †plec-to-nti. So nōscō (stem ( gnōsce/o- ) for gnō-sc-ō. Verbs like nōscō became the type for a large number of verbs in -scō, called inceptives (§ 263. 1).

Verbs which form the present stem by means of the suffixye/o-, which already contained the thematic vowele/o.—Verbs of this class in which any vowel (except u ) came in contact with the suffix ye/o-suffered contraction so as to present a long vowel ā-, ē-, ī-, at the end of the stem. In this contraction the thematic e/o disappeared. These became the types of the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations respectively. In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the Romans themselves (after the mode of formation had been entirely forgotten) from noun- and

adjective-stems. This came to be the regular way of forming new verbs, just as in English the borrowed suffix -ize can be added to nouns and adjectives to make verbs: as, macadamize, modernize.

Thematic verbs of the second class in which a consonant or u came into contact with the suffix ye/o- suffered various phonetic changes. Such verbs fall partly into the Third Conjugation, giving rise to an irregular form of it, and partly into the Fourth, and some have forms of both. Examples are:—（ cōn ) spiciō (-spicĕre) for †spekyō; veniō ( venīre ) for † ( g ) vem-yō; cupiō , cupĕre , but cupīvī; orior, orĭtur, but orīrī . Note, however, pluō ( pluere ) for †plu-yō; and hence, by analogy, acuō ( acuere ) for †acu-yō.

In all these cases many cross-analogies and errors as well as phonetic changes have been at work to produce irregularities. Hence has arisen the traditional system which is practically represented in §§ 175, 176.

The Present Stem may be found by dropping -re in the Present Infinitive:— amā-re , stem amā-; monē-re , stem monē-; tegĕ-re , stem tegĕ-; audī-re , stem audī-.

The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all regular verbs in one of the following ways:—

In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long vowel (ā-, ē-, ī-) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed: as, vocā-re (VOC), monē-re (MEN, cf. meminī ), sopī-re (SOP). Most verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations form the present stem by adding the suffix -ye/o- to a noun-stem. The ā of the First Conjugation is the stem-ending of the noun (as, plantā-re , from plantā- , stem of planta ). The ē of the Second and the ī of the Fourth Conjugation are due to contraction of the short vowel of the noun-stem with the ending -ye/o- . Thus albēre is from albo/e- , stem of albus ; fīnīre is from fīni- , stem of fīnis . Some verbs of these classes, however, come from roots ending in a vowel. Verb-stems of these conjugations are almost all really formed from nounstems on the pattern of older formations (see § 174 ).

In the Third Conjugation, by adding a short vowel e/o This is the so-called “thematic vowel.” to the root. In Latin this e/o usually appears as i/u, but e is preserved in some forms. Thus, tegi-s (root TEG), ali-tis (AL), regu-nt (REG); but tegĕ-ris ( tegĕ-re ), alĕ-ris.

The stem-vowel e/o ( i/u ) may be preceded by n, t, or sc: In these verbs the stem-ending added to the root is respectively -ne/o- , -te/o as, tem-ni-tis, tem-nu-nt,tem-nĕ-ris (TEM); plec-ti-s(PLEC); crē-sci-tis (CRĒ).

Verbs in -iō of the Third Conjugation (as, capiō, capĕre) show in some forms an i before the final vowel of the stem: as, cap-i-unt (CAP), fug-i-unt (FUG).

The root may be changed—

By the repetition of a part of it (reduplication): as, gi-gn-e-re (GEN).

By the insertion of a nasal (m or n): as, find-e-re (FID), tang-e-re (TAG).

In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem in u-, as, statu-e-re ( statu-s ), aestu-ā-re ( aestu-s ); cf. acuō , acuere . These are either old formations in -ye/o- in which the y has disappeared after the u (as, statuō for †statu-yō ） or later imitations of such forms. A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem: as, fer-re , fer-t ; es-se ; vel-le , vul-t . These are counted as irregular. In some verbs the final consonant of the root is doubled before the stemvowel: as, pell-i-tis (PEL), mitt-i-tis (MIT).

Some verbs have roots ending in a vowel. In these the present stem is generally identical with the root: as, da-mus (DA), flē-mus (stem flē-, root form unknown). In some of the verbs of this class the present stem was originally identical with the root; in others the ending -ye/o- was added, but has been absorbed by contraction. But others, as rui-mus (RU), are formed with an additional vowel according to the analogy of the verbs described in d. Some verbs of this class reduplicate the root: as, si-st-e-re (STA, cf. stāre ).

Perfect Stem

The Perfect Stem is formed as follows:—

The suffix v ( u ) is added to the verb-stem: as, vocā-v-ī, audī-v-ī; or to the root: as, son-u-ī (sonā-re, root SON), mon-u-ī ( monē-re , MON treated as a root). The v- perfect is a form of uncertain origin peculiar to the Latin. In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened: as, strā-v-ī ( sternō , STAR), sprē-v-ī ( spernō , SPAR).

The suffix s is added to the root: as, carp-s-ī (CARP), tēx-ī (for tēg-s-ī, TEG). The s- perfect is in origin an aorist. Thus, dīx-ī (for †dīcs-ī ) corresponds to the Greek aorist e)/-deic-a (for †e)/-deiks-a ). The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect: as, fīnx-ī (FIG, present stem fingĕ- ), sānx-ī (SAC, present stem sancī- ).

The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant—generally with ĕ, sometimes with the root-vowel: as, ce-cid-ī ( cadō , CAD), to-tond-ī ( tondeō , TOND). In fid-ī (for †fe-fid-ī , find-ō ), scid-ī (for †sci-scid-ī , scindō ), the reduplication has been lost, leaving merely the root.

The root vowel is lengthened, sometimes with vowel change: as, lēg-ī ( lĕg-ō ), ēm-ī ( ĕm-ō ), vīd-ī ( vĭd-e-ō ), fūg-ī ( fŭg-i-ō ), ēg-ī ( ăg-ō ).

Sometimes the perfect stem has the same formation that appears in the present tense: as, vert-ī ( vert-ō ), solv-ī ( solv-ō ).

Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem: as, petī-v-ī (as if from †peti-ō, †petī-re, PET).

Supine Stem

The Supine Stem may be found by dropping -um from the Supine. It is formed by adding t (or, by a phonetic change, s ）—

To the present stem: as, amā-t-um , dēlē-t-um , audī-t-um .

To the root, with or without ĭ: as, cap-t-um ( capiō , CAP), moni-t-um ( moneō , MON used as root), cās-um (for †cad-t-um, CAD), lēc-t-um (LEG). By phonetic change dt and tt become s ( dēfēnsum , versum for †dē-fendt-um , †vert-t-um ); bt becomes pt ( scrīp-t-um for †scrīb-t-um ); gt becomes ct ( rēc-t-um for †reg-t-um ). For these modifications of the supine stem, see § 15 . 5, 6, 10. The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the supine: as, tīnc-t-um ( tingō , TIG), tēn-s-um for †tend-t-um ( ten-d-ō , TEN). The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem: as, petī-t-um (as if from †peti-ō , †petī-re , PET). A few verbs form the supine stem in s after the analogy of verbs in d and t : as, fal-s-um ( fallō ), pul-s-um ( pellō ).

Forms of Conjugation

The forms of the several conjugations from which, by adding the verb-endings in § 166, all the moods and tenses can be made are as follows:—

The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add ā- to the root to form the present stem: The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For exceptions, see § 209 . a. as, amā-re; with a few whose root ends in a (†for, fā-rī; flō, flā-re; nō, nā-re; stō, stā-re).

The stem-vowel ā- is lost before -ō: as, amō = †amā-（ y ）ō; and in the present subjunctive it is changed to ē: as, amē-s , amē-mus .

The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stemt, to the present stem: as, amā-v-ī , amā-t-um . For exceptions, see § 209. a.

The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add ē- to the root to form the present stem: as, monē-re; with a few whose root ends in ē; as, fle-ō , flē-re; ne-ō, nē-re; re-or, rē-rī (cf. § 176. e).

In the present subjunctive ā is added to the verb-stem: as, mone-ā-s , mone-ā-mus (cf. § 168. e).

A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v（ u ), and the supine stem by adding t, to the present stem: as, dēlē-v-ī , dēlē-t-um . But most form the perfect stem by adding v（ u ) to the root, and the supine stem by adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, ending in ĭ: as, mon-u-ī , monĭ-t-um. For lists, see § 210.

The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see § 197) which add ĕ- to the root to form the present stem: as, tegĕre , capĕ-re; with a few whose root ends in e: as, se-rĕ-re for †se-se-re (reduplicated from SE, cf. sătum ).

The stem-vowel ĕ is regularly lost before -ō, and becomes u The gerundive varies between -endus and -undus . before -nt and ĭ before the other endings of the indicative and imperative: as, teg-ō , tegi-t , tegu-nt; in the imperfect indicative it becomes ē: as, tegēbam , tegē-bās , etc.; in the future, ē: as, tegē-s (except in the first person singular, tega-m, tega-r); in the present subjunctive, ā: as, tegā-s . Verbs in -iō lose the i before a consonant and also before ĭ, ī, and ĕ (except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive). Thus, capi-at , capi-unt , capi-ēbat, capi-ēs , capi-et , capi-ent; but, cap-it (not †capi-it ), cap-eret .

All varieties of perfect and supine stems are found in this conjugation. See lists, § 211. The perfect is not formed from the present stem, but from the root.

The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add ī- to the root to form the present stem: as, audī-re . A few are formed from noun-stems, as fīnī-re (from fīni-s ), and a few roots perhaps end in i ; but these are not distinguishable in form. In these the perfect and supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem: as, audī-v-ī , audīt-um . For exceptions, see § 212 . b. Endings like those of the third conjugation are added in the third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in the imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive: as, audi-unt, audi-ēbat, audi-ētis, audi-at, the i being regularly short before a vowel.

The Present Imperative Active (second person singular) is the same as the present stem: as, amā , monē , tegĕ , audī . But verbs in -iō of the third conjugation omit i: as, capĕ (not †capie ).

The tenses of completed action in the Active voice are all regularly formed by adding the tense-endings (given in § 166) to the perfect stem: as, amāv-ī , amāv-eram , amāv-erō , amāv-erim , amāv-issem , amāv-isse .

The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed by adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of continued action of the verb esse : as, perfect amātus sum; pluperfect amātus eram , etc.

Synopsis of the Verb

The following synopsis shows the forms of the verb arranged according to the three stems (§ 164). Amō , a regular verb of the first conjugation, is taken as a type. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, amō , amāre , amāvī , amātum . Passive, amor, amārī , amātus sum .

Peculiarities of Conjugation

In tenses formed upon the Perfect Stem, v between two vowels is often lost and contraction takes place.

Perfects in -āvī, -ēvī, -ōvī, often contract the two vowels into ā, ē, ō, respectively: as, amāsse for amāvisse; amārim for amāverim; amāssem for amāvissem; cōnsuērat for cōnsuēverat; flēstis for flēvistis; nōsse for nōvisse . So in perfects in -vī, where the v is a part of the present stem: as, commōrat for commōverat . The first person of the perfect indicative (as, amāvī ) is never contracted, the third very rarely.

Perfects in -īvī regularly omit v, but rarely contract the vowels except before st and ss, and very rarely in the third person perfect:— audieram for audīveram; audīsse for audīvisse; audīstī for audīvistī; abiit for abīvit; abiērunt for abīvērunt .

The forms sīris , sīrit , sīrītis , sīrint , for sīveris etc. (from sīverō or sīverim ), are archaic. In many forms from the perfect stem is , iss , sis , are lost in like manner, when s would be repeated if they were retained: as, dīxtī for dīxistī ( x = cs ); trāxe for trāxisse ; ēvāstī for ēvāsistī ; vīxet for vīxisset ; ērēpsēmus for ērēpsissēmus ; dēcēsse for dēcessisse . These forms belong to archaic and colloquial usage.

Four verbs, dīcō , dūcō , faciō , ferō ,—with their compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making dīc , dūc, făc , fĕr; but compounds in -ficiō retain it, as, cōnfice . The imperative forms dīce , dūce , face (never fere ), occur in early Latin.

For the imperative of sciō , the future form scītō is always used in the singular, and scītōte usually in the plural.

The following ancient forms are found chiefly in poetry:

In the fourth conjugation, -ībam, -ībō, for -iēbam, -iam (future). These forms are regular in eō, go (§ 203).

In the present subjunctive, -im: as in duim,perduim, retained in religious formulas and often in comedy. This form is regular in sum and volō and their compounds (§§ 170, 199).

In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect indicative, -sim, -sō: as, faxim,faxō, iussō , recēpsō (= fēcerim etc.); ausim (= ausus sim ).

In the passive infinitive, -ier: as, vocārier for vocārī;agier for agī .

A form in -āssō, -āssere is found used as a future perfect: as, amāssis. from amō;levāssō, fromlevō; impetrāssere, from impetrō;iūdicāssit, from iūdicō (cf. § 263. 2. b. N.).

FIRST CONJUGATION (ā-STEMS)—ACTIVE VOICE

The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add ā- to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in a-. The verb amō, love, is conjugated as follows:— PRINCIPAL PARTS: Present Indicative amō , Present Infinitive amāre , Perfect Indicative amāvī , Supine amātum .

FIRST CONJUGATION (ā-STEMS)—PASSIVE VOICE

PRINCIPAL PARTS: Present Indicative amor, Present Infinitive amārī , Perfect Indicative amātus sum . Fuī , fuistī , etc., are sometimes used instead of sum , es , etc.; so also fueram instead of eram and fuerō instead of erō . Similarly in the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive fuerim , fueris , etc. are sometimes used instead of sim , sīs , etc., and fuissem instead of essem .

SECOND CONJUGATION (ē-STEMS)

The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add ē- to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in ē-. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, moneō , monēre , monuī , monitum; Passive, moneor , monērī , monitus sum .

THIRD CONJUGATION (ĕ-STEMS)

The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see § 197) which add ĕ- to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in ĕ-. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, tegō , tegĕre , tēxī , tēctum; Passive, tegor , tegī , tēctus sum .

FOURTH CONJUGATION (ī-STEMS)

The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add ī- to the root to form the present stem. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, audiō, audīre , audīvī , audītum; Passive, audior , audīrī , audītus sum .

VERBS IN -iō OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION

Verbs of the Third Conjugation in -iō have certain forms of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They lose the i of the stem before a consonant and also before ĭ, ī, and ĕ (except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive). This is a practical working rule. The actual explanation of the forms of such verbs is not fully understood. Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows:— PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, capiō , capĕre , cēpī , captum; Passive, capior , capī , captus sum .

Parallel Forms

Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which only one is generally found in classic use:— lavō , lavāre or lavĕre, wash (see § 211. e).

scateō , scatēre or scatĕre, gush forth.

lūdificō , -āre, or lūdificor , -ārī, mock.

fulgō , fulgĕre , or fulgeō , fulgēre, shine.

DEPONENT VERBS

Deponent Verbs have the forms of the Passive Voice, with an active or reflexive signification:—

Deponents have the participles of both voices:—

The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs otherwise deponent it is often passive: as, mercātus, bought; adeptus, gained (or having gained).

The future infinitive is always in the active form: thus, sequor has secūtūrus (-a, -um) esse (not secūtum īrī ).

The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in transitive verbs, or intransitive verbs used impersonally:— hōc cōnfitendum est, this must be acknowledged.

moriendum est omnibus, all must die.

Most deponents are intransitive or reflexive in meaning, corresponding to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice (§ 156. a. N.).

Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense: as, crīminor, I accuse, or I am accused.

About twenty verbs have an active meaning in both active and passive forms: as, mereō or mereor, I deserve.

More than half of all deponents are of the First Conjugation, and all of these are regular. The following deponents are irregular:— adsentior , -īrī, adsēnsus, assent.

apīscor , (-ip-), -ī, aptus (-eptus), get.

dēfetīscor, -ī, -fessus, faint.

expergīscor , -ī, -perrēctus, rouse.

experior , -īrī, expertus, try.

fateor , -ērī, fassus, confess.

fruor, -ī, frūctus ( fruitus ), enjoy.

fungor , -ī, fūnctus, fulfil.

gradior (-gredior), -ī, gressus, step.

īrāscor , -ī, īrātus, be angry.

lābor, -ī, lāpsus, fall.

loquor , -ī, locūtus, speak.

mētior , -īrī, mēnsus, measure.

-minīscor, -ī, -mentus, think.

morior , -ī (-īrī), mortuus ( moritūrus ), die.

nancīscor, -ī, nactus ( nānctus ), find.

nāscor , -ī, nātus, be born.

nītor, -ī, nīsus ( nīxus ), strive.

oblīvīscor , -ī, oblītus, forget.

opperior , -īrī, oppertus, await.

ōrdior , -īrī, ōrsus, begin.

orior, -īrī, ortus ( oritūrus ), rise (3d conjugation in most forms).

pacīscor , -ī, pactus, bargain.

patior (-petior), -ī, passus (-pessus), suffer.

-plector, -ī, -plexus, clasp.

proficīscor , -ī, profectus, set out.

queror , -ī, questus, complain.

reor , rērī , ratus, think.

revertor , -ī, reversus, return.

ringor , -ī, rictus, snarl.

sequor , -ī, secūtus, follow.

tueor, -ērī, tuitus ( tūtus ), defend.

ulcīscor , -ī, ultus, avenge.

ūtor , -ī, ūsus, use, employ.

The deponent comperior , -īrí , compertus , is rarely found for comperiō , -īre . Revertor , until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect sys tem. revertī . reverteram , etc.

The following deponents have no supine stem:—

Semi-Deponents

A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular in the present, but appear in the tenses of completed action as deponents. These are called Semi-deponents. They are:—

From audeō there is an old perfect subjunctive ausim. The form sōdēs (for sī audēs ), an thou wilt, is frequent in the dramatists and rare elsewhere.

The active forms vāpulō , vāpulāre, be flogged, and vēneō, vēnīre, be sold (contracted from vēnum īre, go to sale), have a passive meaning, and are sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fierī, to be made (§ 204), and exsulāre, to be banished (live in exile); cf. accēdere, to be added. The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: iūrō , iūrāre . iūrātus , swear; nūbō , nūbere , nūpta , marry; placeō , placēre , placitus , please.

THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS

A Periphrastic form, as the name indicates, is a “roundabout way of speaking.” In the widest sense, all verb-phrases consisting of participles and sum are Periphrastic Forms. The Present Participle is, however, rarely so used, and the Perfect Participle with sum is included in the regular conjugation ( amātus sum , eram , etc.). Hence the term Periphrastic Conjugation is usually restricted to verb-phrases consisting of the Future Active Participle or the Gerundive with sum . The Future Passive Infinitive, as amātum īrī , formed from the infinitive passive of eō , go , used impersonally with the supine in -um , may also be classed as a periphrastic form (§ 203 . a ).

There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, known respectively as the First (or Active) and the Second (or Passive).

The First Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Future Active Participle with the forms of sum , and denotes a future or intended action.

The Second Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Gerundive with the forms of sum , and denotes obligation, necessity, or propriety.

The periphrastic forms are inflected regularly throughout the Indicative and Subjunctive and in the Present and Perfect Infinitive.

The First Periphrastic Conjugation:—

So in the other conjugations:— Second: monitūrus sum, I am about to advise.

Third: tēctūrus sum, I am about to cover.

Fourth: audītūrus sum, I am about to hear.

Third (in -iō): captūrus sum, I am about to take.

The Second Periphrastic Conjugation:—

So in the other conjugations:— Second: monendus sum, I am to be, must be, advised.

Third: tegendus sum, I am to be, must be, covered.

Fourth: audiendus sum, I am to be, must be, heard.

Third (in -iō): capiendus sum, I am to be, must be, taken.

IRREGULAR VERBS

Several verbs add some of the personal endings of the present system directly to the root, These are athematic verbs, see § 174 . 2. or combine two verbs in their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs. They are sum , volō , ferō , edō , dō, eō , queō , fīō , and their compounds.

Sum has already been inflected in § 170.

Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with the prepositions ab , ad , dē , in, inter , ob , prae , prō (earlier form prōd ), sub , super.

In the compound prōsum (help), prō retains its original d before e: PRINCIPAL PARTS: prōsum , prōdesse , prōfuī , prōfutūrus

Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis , or pote, able, making the verb possum (be able, can). Possum is inflected as follows:— The forms potis sum , pote sum , etc. occur in early writers. Other early forms are potesse ; possiem , -ēs , -et ; poterint , potisit (for possit ); potestur and possitur (used with a passive infinitive, cf. § 205 . a ). PRINCIPAL PARTS: possum , posse , potuī Potuī is from an obsolete † potēre .

PARTICIPLE PRES. potēns (adjective), powerful

volō , nōlō, mālō PRINCIPAL PARTS: volō , velle , voluī ,—, be willing, will, wish nōlō, nōlle , nōluī ,—, be unwilling, will not mālō , mālle , māluī ,—, be more willing, prefer

Nōlō and mālō are compounds of volō . Nōlō is for ne-volō , and mālō for māvolō from mage-volō .

Ferō, bear, carry, endure Ferō has two independent stems: fer- in the present system, and tul- (for tol- ) in the perfect from TOL, root of tollō . The perfect tetulī occurs in Plautus . In the participle the root is weakened to tl- , lātum standing for † tlātum (cf. tlhto/s ). PRINCIPAL PARTS: ferō , ferre , Ferre , ferrem , are for † fer-se , † fer-sēm (cf. es-se , es-sem ), s being assimilated to preceding r ; or ferre , ferrem , may be for † ferese , † feresēm (see § 15 . 4). tulī , lātum

The compounds of ferō , conjugated like the simple verb, are the following:—

Edō , edere , ēdī , ēsum, eat, is regular of the third conjugation, but has also an archaic present subjunctive and some alternative forms directly from the root (ED), without the thematic vowel. These are in full-faced type.

In the Passive the following irregular forms occur in the third person singular: Present Indicative ēstur, Imperfect Subjunctive ēssētur.

The irregular verb dō, give, is conjugated as follows:— PRINCIPAL PARTS: dō, dăre , dedī , datum

For compounds of dō, see § 209. a. N.

Eō, go. The root of eō is EI (weak form I). This ei becomes ī except before a , o , and u , where it becomes e (cf. eō , eam , eunt ). The strong form of the root, ī , is shortened before a vowel or final -t ; the weak form, ĭ , appears in itum and itūrus . PRINCIPAL PARTS: eō , īre , iī ( īvī ), ĭtum

The compounds adeō, approach, ineō, enter, and some others, are tran sitive. They are inflected as follows in the passive:—

Thus inflected, the forms of eō are used impersonally in the third person singular of the passive: as, itum est (§ 208. d). The infinitive īrī is used with the supine in -um to make the future infinitive passive (§ 193. N.). The verb vēneō, be sold (i.e. vēnum eō, go to sale), has also several forms in the passive.

In the perfect system of eō the forms with v are very rare in the simple verb and unusual in the compounds.

ii before s is regularly contracted to ī: as, īsse .

The compound ambiō is inflected regularly like a verb of the fourth conjugation. But it has also ambībat in the imperfect indicative.

Prō with eō retains its original d: as, prōdeō, prōdīs , prōdit .

Faciō , facere , fēcī , factum, make, is regular. But it has imperative fac in the active, and, besides the regular forms, the future perfect faxō, perfect subjunctive faxim. The passive of faciō is— fīō , fiĕrī, factus sum, be made or become.

The present system of fīō is regular of the fourth conjugation, but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem , and the infinitive fierī . The forms in brackets are not used in good prose.

Most compounds of faciō with prepositions weaken ă to ĭ in the present stem and to ĕ in the supine stem, and are inflected regularly like verbs in -iō:— cōnficiō , cōnficĕre, cōnfēcī , cōnfectum, finish.

cōnficior , cōnficī , cōnfectus .

Other compounds retain a, and have -fīō in the passive: as, benefaciō , -facere, -fēcī, -factum; passive benefīō, -fierī, -factus, benefit. These retain the accent of the simple verb: as, bene-fă'cis (§ 12. a, Exc.).

A few isolated forms of fīo occur in other compounds:— cōnfit, it happens, cōnfīunt; cōnfīat; cōnfieret, cōnfierent; cōnfierī.

dēfit, it lacks, dēfīunt; dēfīet; dēfīat; dēfierī.

effierī, to be effected.

īnfīō, begin (to speak), īnfit .

interfīat, let him perish; interfierī, to perish.

superfit, it remains over; superfīat, superfierī .

DEFECTIVE VERBS

Some verbs have lost the Present System, and use only tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected regularly. These are—

The passive of coepī is often used with the passive infinitive: as, coeptus sum vocārī, I began to be called, but coepī vocāre, I began to call. For the present system incipiō is used. Early and rare forms are coepiō , coepiam , coeperet , coepere .

The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect of ōdī and meminī have the meanings of a Present, Imperfect, and Future respectively:— ōdī, I hate; ōderam, I hated (was hating); ōderō, I shall hate.

A present participle meminēns is early and late. Nōvī and cōnsuēvī (usually referred to nōscō and cōnsuēscō ） are often used in the sense of I know (have learned) and I am accustomed (have become accustomed) as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are occasionally used in the same way (see 476. N.).

Many verbs are found only in the Present System. Such are maereō , -ēre, be sorrowful (cf. maestus, sad); feriō , -īre, strike.

In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts occur in its compounds: as, vādō , vādere , in-vāsī, in-vāsum.

Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms:—

Âiō, I say:—

The vowels a and i are pronounced separately (a-is, a-it） except sometimes in old or colloquial Latin. Before a vowel, one i stands for two (see § 6. c):—thus âiō was pronounced ai-yō and was sometimes written aiiō.

Inquam, I say, except in poetry, is used only in direct quotations (cf. the English quoth).

The only common forms are inquam , inquis , inquit , inquiunt , and the future īnquiēs , inquiet .

The deponent fārī, to speak, has the following forms:—

Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex , prae , prō , inter , occur: as, praefātur , praefāmur , affārī , prōfātus , interfātur , etc. The compound īnfāns is regularly used as a noun (child). īnfandus , nefandus , are used as adjectives, unspeakable, abominable.

Queō, I can, nequeō, I cannot, are conjugated like eō . They are rarely used except in the present. Queō is regularly accompanied by a negative. The forms given below occur, those in full-faced type in classic prose. The Imperative, Gerund, and Supine are wanting.

Quaesō, I ask, beg (original form of quaerō ), has—

Ovāre, to triumph, has the following:—

A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative:— PRES. singular salvē, plural salvēte , FUT. salvētō, hail! (from salvus, safe and sound). An infinitive salvēre and the indicative forms salveō , salvētis , salvēbis , are rare.

PRES. singular avē (or havē ), plural avēte , FUT. avētō, hail or farewell. An infinitive avēre also occurs.

PRES. singular cĕdo, plural cĕdite ( cette ), give, tell.

PRES. singular apage, begone (properly a Greek word).

IMPERSONAL VERBS

Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the third person singular, the infinitive, and the gerund. These are called Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal subject. With impersonal verbs the word it is used in English, having usually no representative in Latin, though id , hōc , illud , are often used nearly in the same way. The passive of many intransitive verbs is used in the same way.

Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows:—

Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the time of day:—

Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed in the verb (§ 354. b):—

Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject (cf. §§ 454, 569.2):— accidit , contingit , ēvenit , obtingit , obvenit , fit, it happens.

The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally (see synopsis in § 207):— ventum est, they came (there was coming).

pūgnātur, there is fighting (it is fought).

ītur, some one goes (it is gone).

parcitur mihi, I am spared (it is spared to me, see § 372).

The impersonal use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive (or middle ) meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the French cela se fait ).

CLASSIFIED LISTS OF VERBS

First Conjugation

There are about 360 simple verbs of the First Conjugation, most of them formed directly on a noun-or adjective-stem: armō, arm (arma, arms); caecō, to blind (caecus, blind); exsulō, be an exile (exsul, an exile) (§ 259).

Their conjugation is usually regular, like amō; though of many only a few forms are found in use.

The following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly. Those marked * have also regular forms.

Compounds of these verbs have the following forms:— crepō : con-crepuī, dis-crepuī or -crepāvī; in-crepuī or -crepāvī.

dō: circum-, inter-, pessum-, satis-, super-, vēnum-dō, -dedī, -dat-, of the first conjugation. Other compounds belong to the root DHA, put, and are of the third conjugation: as, condō, condĕre, condidī, conditum.

micō : dī-micāvī, -micāt-; ē-micuī, -micāt-.

plicō : re-, sub- (sup-), multi-plicō, -plicāvī, -plicāt-; ex-plicō (unfold), -uī, -it-; (explain), -āvī, -āt-; im-plicō, -āvī (-uī), -ātum (-itum).

stō: cōn-stō, -stitī , (-stātūrus）; ad, re-stō, -stitī, ----; ante- (anti-), inter-, superstō, -stetī, ----; circum-stō, -stetī (-stitī), ----; prae-stō, -stitī, -stit- (-stāt-); dī-stō, ex-stō, no perfect or supine (future participle ex-stātūrus).

Second Conjugation

There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conjugation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive in -scō (§ 263. 1):— caleō, be warm; calor, warmth; calidus, warm; calēscō, grow warm.

timeō, fear; timor, fear; timidus, timid; per-timēsco, to take fright.

Most verbs of the second conjugation are inflected like moneō , but many lack the supine (as, arceō, ward off; careō, lack; egeō, need; timeō, fear), and a number have neither perfect nor supine (as, maereō, be sad).

The following keep ē in all the systems:—

The following show special irregularities:—

Third Conjugation

The following lists include most simple verbs of the Third Conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Perfect Stem:—

Forming the perfect stem in s ( x ) (§ 177. b and note):—

Reduplicated in the perfect (§ 177. c):—

Adding u ( v ) to the verb-root (§ 177. a):—

Adding iv to the verb-root (§ 177. f):—

Lengthening the vowel of the root (cf. § 177. d):—

Retaining the present stem or verb-root (cf. § 177. e):—

Fourth Conjugation

There are—besides a few deponents and some regular derivatives in -ŭriō, as, ēsuriō, be hungry (cf. § 263. 4)—about 60 verbs of this conjugation, a large proportion of them being descriptive verbs: like— crōciō, croak; mūgiō, bellow; tinniō, tinkle.

Most verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are conjugated regularly, like audiō, though a number lack the supine.

The following verbs show special peculiarities:—

For Index of Verbs, see pp. 436 ff.

PARTICLES