Adjectives, numerals, and pronouns

A Roman had regularly three names:—(1) the praenōmen , or personal name; (2) the nōmen , or name of the gēns or house; (3) the cōgnōmen , or family name:—

Thus in Mārcus Tullius Cicerō we have— Mārcus, the praenōmen , like our Christian or given name;

Tullius , the nōmen , properly an adjective denoting of the Tullian gēns (or house) whose original head was a real or supposed Tullus;

Cicerō, the cōgnōmen , or family name, often in origin a nickname,—in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.

When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cōgnōmen is usually put in the plural: as, Pūblius et Servius Sullae .

A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given as a mark of honor or distinction, or to show adoption from another gēns.

Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Pūblius Cornēlius Scīpiō Āfricānus Aemiliānus : Āfricānus , from his exploits in Africa; Aemiliānus , as adopted from the Æmilian gēns. In stating officially the full name of a Roman it was customary to include the praenōmina of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, together with the name of the tribe to which the individual belonged. Thus in an inscription we find M. TVLLIVS M. F. M. N. M. PR. COR. CICERO, i.e. Mārcus Tullius Mārcī fīlius Mārcī nepōs Mārcī pronepōs Cornēliā tribū Cicerō . The names of grandfather and great-grandfather as well as that of the tribe are usually omitted in literature. The name of a wife or daughter is usually accompanied by that of the husband or father in the genitive: as, Postumia Servī Sulpiciī (Suet. Iul. 50) , Postumia , wife of Servius Sulpicius; Caecilia Metellī (Div. 1.104) , Caecilia , daughter of Metellus. The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these additions, but later grammarians invented the word āgnōmen to express them.

Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were known only by the nōmen of their gēns.

Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia , and his daughter Tullia . A second daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, a third daughter, Tullia tertia , and so on.

The commonest prænomens are thus abbreviated:—

ADJECTIVES

Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and declined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use.

In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. Thus,— bonus puer, the good boy.

bona puella, the good girl.

bonum dōnum, the good gift.

In their inflection they are either (1) of the First and Second Declensions, or (2) of the Third Declension.

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS (ā- AND o-STEMS)

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions (ā- and o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus , puer , or ager; in the Feminine like stella; and in the Neuter like bellum .

The regular type of an adjective of the First and Second Declensions is bonus, -a, -um, which is thus declined:—

bonus, bona, bonum, good

But most modern editions disregard this principle.

The Genitive Singular masculine of adjectives in -ius ends in -iī, and the Vocative in -ie; not in -ī, as in nouns (cf. § 49. b, c); as, Lacedaemonius , -iī, -ie. The possessive meus , my , has the vocative masculine mī (cf. § 145 ).

Stems ending in ro- preceded by e form the Nominative Masculine like puer (§ 47) and are declined as follows:—

miser, misera, miserum, wretched

Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, līber , prosper (also pros perus), satur (-ura, -urum), tener , with compounds of -fer and -ger: as, saetiger, -era, -erum, bristle-bearing; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to the stem; but in dextra it is often omitted: as, dextra manus, the right hand. Stems in ēro- (as prōcērus ), with mōrigĕrus , propĕrus , have the regular nominative masculine in -us .

The following lack a nominative singular masculine in classic use: cētera , īnfera , postera , supera . They are rarely found in the singular except in certain phrases: as, posterō diē, the next day. An ablative feminine in -ō is found in a few Greek adjectives: as, lectīcā ; octōphorō (Verr. 5.27) .

Stems in ro- preceded by a consonant form the Nominative Masculine like ager (§ 47) and are declined as follows:—

niger, nigra, nigrum, black

Like niger are declined aeger , āter , crēber , faber , glaber , integer, lūdicer , macer, piger , pulcher , ruber, sacer , scaber, sinister, taeter , vafer; also the possessives noster , vester (§ 145).

The following nine adjectives with their compounds have the Genitive Singular in -īus and the Dative in -ī in all genders:

Of these the singular is thus declined:—

The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus (§ 110).

The genitive in -īus, dative in -ī, and neuter in -d are pronominal in origin (cf. illīus , illī , illud , and § 146).

The i of the genitive ending -īus, though originally long, may be made short in verse; so often in alterius and regularly in utriusque .

Instead of alīus , alterīus is commonly used, or in the possessive sense the adjective aliēnus, belonging to another, another's.

In compounds—as alteruter—sometimes both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter. Thus, alterī utrī or alterutrī, to one of the two. The regular genitive and dative forms (as in bonus ) are sometimes found in some of these words: as, genitive and dative feminine, aliae ; dative masculine, aliō . Rare forms are alis and alid (for alius , aliud ).

THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND i-STEMS)

Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus classified:—

Adjectives of Three Terminations in the nominative singular,—one for each gender: as,ācer, ācris , ācre.

Adjectives of Two Terminations,—masculine and feminine the same: as, levis (M., F.), leve (N.).

Adjectives of One Termination,—the same for all three genders: as, atrōx .

Adjectives of two and three terminations are true i-stems and hence retain in the ablative singular -ī, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and in the accusative plural regularly -īs (see §§ 73 and 74). But the forms of some are doubtful.

Adjectives of Three and of Two Terminations

Adjectives of Three Terminations are thus declined:—

ācer, ācris, ācre, keen, STEM ācri-

Like ācer are declined the following stems in ri-:— alacer, campester, celeber , equester, palūster, pedester, puter , salūber , silvester, terrester, volucer. So also names of months in -ber: as, Octōber (cf. § 66).

This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometimes used for both genders: as, coetus alacris (Enn.). In others, as faenebris , fūnebris , illūstris , lūgubris , mediocris , muliebris , there is no separate masculine form at all, and these are declined like levis (§ 116 ). Celer , celeris , celere , swift , has the genitive plural celerum , used only as a noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in -e .

Adjectives of Two Terminations are thus declined:—

levis, leve, light, STEM levi-

Adjectives of One Termination

The remaining adjectives of the third declension are Consonant stems; but most of them, except Comparatives, have the following forms of i-stems:— For details see § 121 . -ī in the ablative singular (but often -e);

-ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter;

-ium in the genitive plural;

-īs (as well as -ēs) in the accusative plural masculine and feminine.

In the other cases they follow the rule for Consonant stems.

These adjectives, except stems in l- or r-, form the nominative singular from the stem by adding s: as, atrōx (stem atrōc- + s ), egēns (stem egent- + s ). Stems in nt- omit t before the nominative -s

Here belong the present participles in -ns (stem nt-） Stems in nt- omit t before the nominative -s : as, amāns , monēns . They are declined like egēns (but cf. § 121).

Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows:—

Other examples are the following:—

Declension of Comparatives

Comparatives are declined as follows:—

All comparatives except plūs are declined like melior .

The stem of comparatives properly ended in ŏ¯s-; but this became or in the nominative masculine and feminine, and ōr- in all other cases except the nominative and accusative singular neuter, where s is retained and ŏ is changed to ŭ (cf. honŏr, -ōris; corpus, -ŏris). Thus comparatives appear to have two terminations.

The neuter singular plūs is used only as a noun. The genitive (rarely the ablative) is used only as an expression of value (cf. § 417). The dative is not found in classic use. The compound complūrēs, several, has sometimes neuter plural complūria .

Case-Forms of Consonant Stems

In adjectives of Consonant stems—

The Ablative Singular commonly ends in -ī, but sometimes -e.

Adjectives used as nouns (as superstes, survivor) have -e.

Participles in -ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute, § 419), or as nouns, regularly have -e; but participles used as adjectives have regularly -ī:— dominō imperante, at the master's command; ab amante, by a lover; ab amanti muliere, by a loving woman.

The following have regularly -ī:—āmēns, anceps , concors (and other compounds of cor ), cōnsors (but as a substantive, -e),dēgener, hebes , ingēns , inops , memor (and compounds), pār (in prose), perpes , praeceps , praepes , teres .

The following have regularly -e: caeles , compos, [†dēses],dīves, hospes , particeps, pauper, prīnceps , sōspes , superstes . So also patrials (see § 71. 5) and stems in āt-, īt-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as adjectives.

The Genitive Plural ends commonly in -ium, but has -um in the following: Forms in -um sometimes occur in a few others. —

Always in compos, dīves, inops , particeps, praepes , prīnceps , supplex , and compounds of nouns which have -um: as, quadru-pēs, bi-color.

Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns: as, silentum concilium, a council of the silent shades (Aen. 6.432).

The Accusative Plural regularly ends in -īs, but comparatives commonly have -ēs.

Vetus (gen. -ĕris) and pūbes (gen. -ĕris） regularly have -e in the ablative singular, -a in the nominative and accusative plural, and -um in the genitive plural. For ūber , see § 119.

A few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine form in -a: as, clienta , hospita , with the appellative Iūnō Sōspita .

Irregularities and Special Uses of Adjectives

The following special points require notice:—

Several adjectives vary in declension: as, gracilis (-us), hilaris (-us), inermis (-us), bicolor (-ōrus).

A few adjectives are indeclinable: as, damnās , frūgī (really a dative of service, see § 382. 1. N. 2), nēquam (originally an adverb), necesse , and the pronominal forms tot , quot , aliquot, totidem . Potis is often used as an indeclinable adjective, but sometimes has pote in the neuter.

Several adjectives are defective: as, exspēs (only nom.), exlēx ( exlēgem ) (only nom. and acc. sing.), pernox ( pernocte ) (only nom. and abl. sing.); and prīmōris , sēminecī , etc., which lack the nominative singular.

Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in the masculine and feminine. These may be called adjectives of common gender.

Such are adulēscēns, youthful; [†dēses], -idis, slothful; inops , -opis, poor; sōspes , -itis, safe. Similarly, senex, old man, and iuvenis, young man, are sometimes called masculine adjectives.

For Adjectives used as Nouns, see §§ 288, 289; for Nouns used as Adjectives, see § 321. c; for Adjectives used as Adverbs, see § 214; for Adverbs used as Adjectives, see § 321. d.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

In Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of comparison: the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (neuter -ius), The comparative suffix (earlier -iōs ) is akin to the Greek - i/wn , or the Sanskrit - iyans. That of the superlative ( -issimus ) is a double form of uncertain origin. It appears to contain the is- of the old suffix -is-to-s (seen in h(/d-isto-s and English sweetest ） and also the old -mo-s (seen in prī-mus , mini-mus , etc.). The endings -limus and -rimus are formed by assimilation (§ 15 . 6) from -simus . The comparative and superlative are really new stems, and are not strictly to be regarded as forms of inflection. the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel:—

Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared:— patiēns, patient; patientior, patientissimus.

apertus, open; apertior, apertissimus.

Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by adding -rimus to the nominative. The comparative is regular:— ācer, keen; ācrior, ācerrimus.

miser, wretched; miserior, miserrimus.

So vetus (gen. veteris ) has superlative veterrimus , from the old form veter; and mātūrus , besides its regular superlative ( mātūrissimus ), has a rare form mātūrrimus.

For the comparative of vetus , vetustior (from vetustus ) is used.

Six adjectives in -lis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the stem clipped of its final i-. These are facilis , difficilis , similis , dissimilis , gracilis , humilis . facilis (stem facili-), easy; facilior, facillimus.

Compounds in -dicus (saying) and -volus (willing) take in their comparison the forms of the corresponding participles dīcēns and volēns , which were anciently used as adjectives:— maledicus, slanderous; maledīcentior, maledīcentissimus.

malevolus, spiteful; malevolentior, malevolentissimus.

So, by analogy, compounds in -ficus:— māgni ficus, grand; māgnificentior, māgnificentissimus.

Some adjectives are compared by means of the adverbs magis, more, and maximē, most.

So especially adjectives in -us preceded by e or i:— idōneus, fit; magis idōneus, maximē idōneus.

But pius has piissimus in the superlative,—a form condemned by Cicero, but common in inscriptions; equally common, however, is the irregular pientissimus .

Irregular Comparison

Several adjectives have in their comparison irregular forms:—

Defective Comparison

Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear without a Positive:—

The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives: The forms in -trā and -terus were originally comparative (cf. alter ), so that the comparatives in -terior are double comparatives. Īnferus and superus are comparatives of a still more primitive form (cf. the English comparative in - er ). The superlatives in -timus ( -tumus ) are relics of old forms of comparison; those in -mus like īmus , summus , prīmus , are still more primitive. Forms like extrēmus are superlatives of a comparative. In fact, comparison has always been treated with an accumulation of endings, as children say furtherer and furtherest. —

Of the following the positive forms are rare, except when used as nouns (generally in the plural):—

But the plurals, exterī, foreigners; īnferī, the gods below; posterī, posterity, superī, the heavenly gods, are common. The superlative postumus has the special sense of last-born , and was a well known surname.

Several adjectives lack the Comparative or the Superlative:—

The Comparative is rare or wanting in the following:—

The Superlative is wanting in many adjectives in -ilis or -bilis (as, agilis, probābilis), and in the following:—

From iuvenis, youth, senex, old man (cf. § 122. d), are formed the comparatives iūnior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, minor nātū and mâior nātū are sometimes used ( nātū being often omitted).

The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and maximus , with or without nātū . In these phrases nātū is ablative of specification (see § 418 ).

Many adjectives (as aureus, golden) are from their meaning incapable of comparison. But each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus, niger , glossy black. and candidus , shining white , are compared; but not āter or albus , meaning absolute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has ātrior ).

NUMERALS

The Latin Numerals may be classified as follows:—

I. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES:

Cardinal Numbers, answering the question how many? as, ūnus, one; duo, two, etc.

Ordinal Numbers, The Ordinals (except secundus , tertius , octāvus , nōnus ) are formed by means of suffixes related to those used in the superlative and in part identical with them. Thus, decimus (compare the form īnfimus ) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten; prīmus is a superlative of a stem akin to prō ; the forms in -tus ( quārtus , quīntus , sextus ） may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in - tos , and with superlatives in - is-to-s , while the others have the superlative ending -timus (changed to -simus ). Of the exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor ; alter is a comparative form (compare - teros in Greek), and nōnus is contracted from † novenos . The cardinal multiples of ten are compounds of -gint- ‘ten’ (a fragment of a derivative from decem ). adjectives derived (in most cases) from the Cardinals, and answering the question which in order? as, prīmus, first; secundus, second, etc.

Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time? as, singulī, one at a time; bīnī, two by two, etc.

II. NUMERAL ADVERBS, answering the question how often? as, semel, once; bis, twice, etc.

Cardinals and Ordinals

These two series are as follows:—

Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals

Of the Cardinals only ūnus , duo , trēs , the hundreds above one hundred, and mīlle when used as a noun, are declinable.

For the declension of ūnus , see § 113. It often has the meaning of same or only. The plural is used in this sense; but also, as a simple numeral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning: as, ūna castra, one camp (cf. § 137. b). The plural occurs also in the phrase ūnī et alterī, one party and the other (the ones and the others).

Duo, The form in -o is a remnant of the dual number , which was lost in Latin, but is found in cognate languages. So in ambō , both , which preserves -ō (cf. du/w and § 629 . b ). two, and trēs, three, are thus declined:—

The hundreds, up to 1000, are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus.

Mīlle, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective:— mīlle modīs, in a thousand ways.

cum mīlle hominibus, with a thousand men.

mīlle trahēns variōs colōrēs (Aen. 4.701) , drawing out a thousand various colors.

In the plural it is used as a neuter noun, and is declined like the plural of sedīle (§ 69): mīlia , mīlium , mīlibus , etc. The singular mīlle is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative and accusative: as, mīlle hominum mīsit , he sent a thousand (of) men; in the other cases rarely, except in connection with the same case of mīlia : as, cum octō mīlibus peditum , mīlle equitum , with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse.

The ordinals are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are regularly declined like bonus.

Cardinals and Ordinals have the following uses:—

In numbers below 100, if units precede tens, et is generally inserted: duo et vīgintī; otherwise et is omitted: vīgintī duo .

In numbers above 100 the highest denomination generally stands first, the next second, etc., as in English. Et is either omitted entirely, or stands between the two highest denominations: mīlle ( et ) septingentī sexāgintā quattuor , 1764. Observe the following combinations of numerals with substantives:— ūnus et vīgintī mīlitēs , or vīgintī mīlitēs ( et ) ūnus, 21 soldiers.

duo mīlia quīngentī mīlitēs , or duo mīlia mīlitum et quīngentī, 2500 soldiers.

mīlitēs mīlle ducentī trīgintā ūnus, 1231 soldiers.

After mīlia the name of the objects enumerated is in the genitive: duo mīlia hominum, two thousand men. Or, in poetry, bis mīlle hominēs , twice a thousand men.

cum tribus mīlibus mīlitum, with three thousand soldiers.

mīlia passuum tria, three thousand paces (three miles).

For million, billion, trillion, etc., the Romans had no special words, out these numbers were expressed by multiplication (cf. § 138. a).

Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine gender is used to agree with pars expressed or understood:—two-sevenths, duae septimae (sc. partēs ); three-eighths, trēs octāvae (sc. partēs ).

One-half is dīmidia pars or dīmidium . When the numerator is one , it is omitted and pars is expressed: onethird , tertia pars ; one-fourth , quārta pars . When the denominator is but one greater than the numerator, the numerator only is given: two-thirds , duae partēs ; three-fourths , trēs partēs , etc. Fractions are also expressed by special words derived from as , a pound: as, triēns , a third; bēs , two-thirds. See § 637 .

Distributives

Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of bonus. These answer to the interrogative quotēnī , how many of each? or how many at a time?

Distributives are used as follows:—

In the sense of so many apiece or on each side: as, singula singulīs, one apiece (one each to each one); agrī septēna iūgera plēbī dīvīsa sunt , i.e. seven jugera to each citizen (seven jugera each), etc.

Instead of cardinals, to express simple number, when a noun plural in form but usually singular in meaning is used in a plural sense: as, bīna castra, two camps ( duo castra would mean two forts). With such nouns trīnī , not ternī , is used for three: as, trīna (not terna ) castra, three camps; terna castra means camps in threes.

In multiplication: as, bis bīna, twice two; ter septēnīs diēbus, in thrice seven days.

By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs or sets are spoken of: as, bīna hastīlia, two shafts (two in a set).

Numeral Adverbs

The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiēns ( quotiēs ), how many times? how often?

Numeral Adverbs are used with mīlle to express the higher numbers: ter et trīciēns ( centēna mīlia ) sēstertium, 3,300,000 sesterces (three and thirty times a hundred thousand sesterces).

vīciēs ac septiēs mīliēs ( centēna mīlia ) sēstertium, 2,700,000,000 sesterces (twenty-seven thousand times a hundred thousand).

These large numbers are used almost exclusively in reckoning money, and centēna mīlia is regularly omitted (see § 634 ).

Other Numerals

The following adjectives are called Multiplicatives:— simplex, single; duplex, double, twofold; triplex, triple, threefold; quadruplex , quīnquiplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex, sēsquiplex (1 1/2), multiplex (manifold).

Proportionals are: duplus , triplus , quadruplus , octuplus , etc., twice as great, thrice as great, etc.

Temporals: bīmus , trīmus, of two or three years' age; biennis , triennis, lasting two or three years; bimēstris , trimēstris, of two or three months; bīduum, a period of two days; biennium, a period of two years.

Partitives: bīnārius , ternārius, of two or three parts.

Other derivatives are: ūniō, unity; bīniō, the two (of dice); prīmānus of the first legion; prīmārius, of the first rank; dēnārius, a sum of 10 asses bīnus (distributive), double, etc.

PRONOUNS

Pronouns are used as Nouns or as Adjectives. They are divided into the following seven classes:—

Personal Pronouns: as, ego, I.

Reflexive Pronouns: as, sē, himself.

Possessive Pronouns: as, meus, my.

Demonstrative Pronouns: as, hīc, this; ille, that.

Relative Pronouns: as, quī, who.

Interrogative Pronouns: as, quis, who?

Indefinite Pronouns: as, aliquis, some one.

Pronouns have special forms of declension. These special forms are, in general, survivals of a very ancient form of declension differing from that of nouns.

Personal Pronouns

The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, I, nōs, we; of the second person, tū, thou or you, vōs, ye or you. The personal pronouns of the third person—he, she, it, they—are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used instead.

Ego and tū are declined as follows:—

The plural nōs is often used for the singular ego; the plural vōs is never so used for the singular tū .

Old forms are genitive mīs , tīs ; accusative and ablative mēd , tēd (cf. § 43 . N. 1).

The forms nostrum , vestrum , etc., are used partitively:— ūnusquisque nostrum, each one of us.

vestrum omnium, of all of you.

The forms of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the genitives of the possessives: meī , tuī , suī , nostrī , vestrī , genitive singular neuter: nostrum , vestrum , genitive plural masculine or neuter. So in early and later Latin we find ūna vestrārum , one of you ( women ).

The genitives meī , tuī , suī , nostri , vestrī , are chiefly used objectively (§ 347):— memor sīs nostrī, be mindful of us (me).

mē tuī pudet, I am ashamed of you.

Emphatic forms of tū are tūte and tūtemet ( tūtimet ). The other cases of the personal pronouns, excepting the genitive plural, are made emphatic by adding -met: as, egomet , vōsmet. Early emphatic forms are mēpte and tēpte .

Reduplicated forms are found in the accusative and ablative singular: as, mēmē , tētē.

The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative: as, tēcum loquitur, he talks with you.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand (see § 299): as, sē amat, he loves himself.

In the first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal pronouns are used as Reflexives: as, mē videō, I see myself; tē laudās, you praise yourself; nōbīs persuādēmus, we persuade ourselves.

The Reflexive pronoun of the third person has a special form used only in this sense, the same for both singular and plural. It is thus declined:— GEN. suī, of himself, herself, itself, themselves

DAT. sibi, to himself, herself, itself, themselves

ACC. sē ( sēsē ), himself, herself, itself, themselves

ABL. sē ( sēsē ), [by] himself, herself, itself, themselves

Emphatic and reduplicated forms of sē are made as in the personals (see § 143 . d , e ). The preposition cum is added enclitically: as, sēcum , with himself. etc. An old form sēd occurs in the accusative and ablative.

Possessive Pronouns

The Possessive pronouns are:—

These are really adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are so declined (see §§ 110-112). But meus has regularly mī (rarely meus ) in the vocative singular masculine. Suus is used only as a reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative must be used. Thus, patrem suum occīdit , he killed his (own) father; but patrem êius occīdit , he killed his (somebody else's) father.

Emphatic forms in -pte are found in the ablative singular: suōpte.

A rare possessive cûius ( quôius ), -a, -um, whose, is formed from the genitive singular of the relative or interrogative pronoun (quī, quis). It may be either interrogative or relative in force according to its derivation, but is usually the former.

The reciprocals one another and each other are expressed by inter sē or alter ... alterum :— alter alterīus ōva frangit, they break each other's eggs (one ... of the other).

inter sē amant, they love one another (they love among themselves).

Demonstrative Pronouns

The Demonstrative Pronouns are used to point out or designate a person or thing for special attention, either with nouns as Adjectives or alone as Pronouns. They are:—hīc, this; is, ille , iste, that; with the Intensive ipse, self, and īdem, same; These demonstratives are combinations of o- and i- stems, which are not clearly distinguishable. and are thus declined:—

hīc, this

is, that

ille, that

Iste , ista , istud, that (yonder), is declined like ille . Ille replaces an earlier ollus ( olle ), of which several forms occur. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste etc. The first syllable of ille and ipse is very often used as short in early poetry. The forms illī , istī (gen.), and illae , istae ( dat .), are sometimes found; also the nominative plural istaece , illaece (for istae , illae ). See a , p. 67.

ipse, self

īdem, the same

Ille and iste appear in combination with the demonstrative particle -c, shortened from -ce, in the following forms:—

The combinations hûiusmodī ( hûiuscemodī ), êiusmodī, etc., are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to tālis, such: as, rēs êiusmodī, such a thing (a thing of that sort: cf. § 345. a).

For uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns, see §§ 296 ff.

Relative Pronouns

The Relative Pronoun quī, who, which, is thus declined:—

Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

The Substantive Interrogative Pronoun quis, who? quid, what? is declined in the Singular as follows:—

The Plural is the same as that of the Relative, quī , quae , quae .

The singular quis is either masculine or of indeterminate gender, but in old writers it is sometimes distinctly feminine.

The Adjective Interrogative Pronoun, quī , quae , quod, what kind of? what? which? is declined throughout like the Relative:—

Quisnam, pray, who? is an emphatic interrogative. It has both substantive and adjective forms like quis , quī .

The Indefinite Pronouns quis, any one, and quī, any, are declined like the corresponding Interrogatives, but qua is commonly used for quae except in the nominative plural feminine:—

The feminine forms qua and quae are sometimes used substantively.

The indefinites quis and quī are rare except after sī , nisi , nē , and num , and in compounds (see § 310. a, b). After these particles quī is often used as a substantive and quis as an adjective (cf. § 148 . b. N.).

Case-Forms of quī and quis

The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are originally of the same stem, and most of the forms are the same (compare § 147 with § 148). The stem has two forms in the masculine and neuter, quo-, qui-, and one for the feminine, quā-. The interrogative sense is doubtless the original one.

Old forms for the genitive and dative singular are quôius , quoi .

The form quī is used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders; but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any way), and in the combination quīcum, with whom, as an interrogative or an indefinite relative.

A nominative plural quēs (stem qui-) occurs in early Latin. A dative and ablative plural quīs (stem quo-) is found even in classic Latin.

The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the ablative, as with the personal pronouns (§ 143. f): as, quōcum, quīcum , quibuscum . But occasionally cum precedes: as, cum quō (Iuv. 4.9) .

Compounds of quis and quī

The pronouns quis and quī appear in various combinations.

The adverb -cumque (-cunque) (cf. quisque ) added to the relative makes an indefinite relative, which is declined like the simple word: as, quīcumque , quaecumque , quodcumque, whoever, whatever; cûiuscumque , etc. This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative: as, quāliscumque , of whatever sort; quandōcumque (also rarely quandōque ), whenever; ubicumque , wherever.

In quisquis, whoever, both parts are declined, but the only forms in common use are quisquis , quidquid ( quicquid ) and quōquō . Rare forms are quemquem and quibusquibus ; an ablative quīquī is sometimes found in early Latin; the ablative feminine quāquā is both late and rare. Cuicui occurs as a genitive in the phrase cuicui modī , of whatever kind. Other cases are cited, but have no authority. In early Latin quisquis is occasionally feminine. Quisquis is usually substantive, except in the ablative quōquō , which is more commonly an adjective.

The indefinite pronouns quīdam, a certain (one); quīvīs , quīlibet, any you please, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. The first part is declined like the relative quī , but the neuter has both quid- (substantive) and quod- (adjective):—

Quīdam changes m to n before d in the accusative singular ( quendam , M.; quandam , F.) and the genitive plural (quōrundam, M., N.; quārundam, F.).

The indefinite pronouns quispiam, some, any, and quisquam, any at all, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. Quispiam has feminine quaepiam (adjective), neuter quidpiam (substantive) and quodpiam (adjective); the plural is very rare. Quisquam is both masculine and feminine; the neuter is quidquam ( quicquam ), substantive only; there is no plural. Ūllus , -a, -um, is commonly used as the adjective corresponding to quisquam .

The indefinite pronoun aliquis (substantive), some one, aliquī (adjective), some, is declined like quis and quī , but aliqua is used instead of aliquae except in the nominative plural feminine:—

The indefinite pronoun ecquis (substantive), whether any one, ecquī (adjective), whether any, is declined like aliquis , but has either ecquae or ecqua in the nominative singular feminine of the adjective form. Ecquis ( ecquī ) has no genitive singular, and in the plural occurs in the nominative and accusative only.

The enclitic particle -que added to the interrogative gives a universal: as, quisque, every one; uterque, each of two, or both. Quisque is declined

like the interrogative quis , quī :—substantive, quisque , quidque; adjective, quīque , quaeque , quodque .

In the compound ūnusquisque, every single one, both parts are declined (genitive unīuscûiusque ), and they are sometimes written separately and even separated by other words:— nē in ūnō quidem quōque (Lael. 92) , not even in a single one.

The relative and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective cûius (-a, -um), older quôius, whose; and a patrial cûiās (cûiāt-), of what country.

Quantus, how great, quālis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives from the interrogative. They are either interrogative or relative, corresponding respectively to the demonstratives tantus , tālis (§ 152). Indefinite compounds are quantuscumque and quāliscumque (see § 151. a).

Correlatives

Many Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbs have corresponding demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called Correlatives. They are shown in the following table:—

VERBS: CONJUGATION OF THE VERB