Prosody and grammatical terms

Latin, unlike modern languages, expresses the relation of words to each other by inflection rather than by position. Hence its structure not only admits of great variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sentence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word.

An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose; but its effect is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage:—

High on a throne of royal state, which far

Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind,

Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand

Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,

Satan exalted sat.—Paradise Lost, ii. 1-5.

But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole; and the logical relation among all its parts is carefully indicated.

In the structure of the Period, the following rules are to be observed:—

In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, not in a subordinate one:— Hannibal cum recēnsuisset auxilia Gādēs profectus est (Liv. 21.21) , when Hannibal had reviewed the auxiliaries, he set out for Cadiz.

Volscī exiguam spem in armīs, aliā undique abscissā, cum tentāssent, praeter cētera adversa, locō quoque inīquō ad pūgnam congressī, inīquiōre ad fugam, cum ab omnī parte caederentur, ad precēs ā certāmine versī dēditō imperātōre trāditīsque armīs, sub iugum missī, cum singulīs vestīmentīs, īgnōminiae clādisque plēnī dīmittuntur (Liv. 4.10) . [Here the main fact is the return of the Volscians. But the striking circumstances of the surrender etc., which in English would be detailed in a number of brief independent sentences, are put into the several subordinate clauses within the main clause so that the passage gives a complete picture in one sentence.]

Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind of the speaker; so, usually, cause before result; purpose, manner, and the like, before the act.

In coördinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently omitted (asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear by some antithesis indicated by the position of words.

A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But such change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure,—the less important being merged in the more important by the aid of participles or of subordinate phrases:— quem ut barbarī incendium effūgisse vīdērunt, tēlīs ēminus missīs interfēcērunt (Nep. Alc. 10) , when the barbarians saw that he had escaped, THEY threw darts at HIM at long range and killed HIM.

celeriter cōnfectō negōtiō, in hīberna legiōnēs redūxit (B. G. 6.3) , the matter was soon finished, AND he led the legions, etc.

So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for it, is avoided unless a different case is required:— dolōrem sī nōn potuerō frangere occultābō; (Phil. 12.21), if I cannot conquer the pain, I will hide IT. [Cf. if I cannot conquer I will hide the pain.]

The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succession of long and short syllables. Thus,— quod scīs nihil prōdest, quod nescīs multum obest (Or. 166) , what you know is of no use, what you do not know does great harm.

In rhetorical writing, particularly in oratory, the Romans, influenced by their study of the Greek orators, gave more attention to this matter than in other forms of composition. Quintilian (ix. 4.72) lays down the general rule that a clause should not open with the beginning of a verse or close with the end of one.

PROSODY

QUANTITY

The poetry of the Indo-European people seems originally to have been somewhat like our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding the natural quantity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables; and the Romans borrowed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence Latin poetry does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme; but is measured, like musical strains, by the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from our verse in not regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an entirely different system of metrical accent or ictus (see § 611. a). This depends upon the character of the measure used, falling at regular intervals of time on a long syllable or its equivalent. Each syllable is counted as either long or short in Quantity; and a long syllable is generally reckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, see § 608. c-e ).

The quantity of radical (or stem) syllables—as of short a in păter or of long a in māter—can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined by the general rules of quantity. Most of these rules are only arbitrary formulas devised to assist the memory; the syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced them so. The actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets; but the ancient grammarians give some assistance, and in some inscriptions long vowels are distinguished in various ways,— by the apex, for instance, or by doubling (§ 10. e. N.).

Since Roman poets borrow very largely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accordance with the Greek, and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in any important point, the variations will be noticed in the rules below.

GENERAL RULES

The following are General Rules of Quantity (cf. §§ 9-11):

Quantity of Vowels

Vowels. A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as, vĭa, trăhō .

Exceptions.

In the genitive form -ius,ī is long: as, utrīus , nūllīus . It is, however, sometimes short in verse (§ 113. c).

In the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, e is long between two vowels: as, diēī; otherwise usually short, as in fidĕī , rĕī , spĕī . It was once long in these also: as, plēnus fidēī ( Ennius , at the end of a hexameter). A is also long before ī in the old genitive of the first declension: as, aulāī .

In the conjugation of fīō , i is long except when followed by er . Thus, fīō , fīēbam , fīam , but fĭerī,fĭerem; so alsofĭt (§ 606. a. 3).

In many Greek words the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel or diphthong, and retains its original long quantity: as, Trōes (*trw=es),Thalīa (*qalei=a). hērōas (h(/rwas), āēr (a)/hr).

But many Greek words are more or less Latinized in this respect: as, Acadēmī˘a , chorē˘a , Malĕa , platĕa .

In dīus , in ē˘heu usually, and sometimes inDī˘āna andō˘he, the first vowel is long.

Diphthongs. A Diphthong is long: as, foedus , cui , Rarely dissyllabic cŭĭ (as Mart. 1.104.22 ). aula .

Exception.—The preposition prae in compounds is generally shortened before a vowel: as, praĕ-ustīs (Aen. 7.524), praĕ-eunte (id. 5.186). U following q , s , or g , does not make a diphthong with a following vowel (see § 5 . N. 2). For â-iō , mâ-ior , pê-ior , etc., see § 11 . d and N.

Contraction. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis) is long: as, nīl, from nihil; cōgō for †co-agō; mālō for mā-volō. Two vowels of different syllables may be run together without full contraction ( synizēsis , § 642 ): as, d ei nde (for deinde ), m eō s (for meōs ); and often two syllables are united by Synæresis (§ 642 ) without contraction: as when părĭĕtĭbŭs is pronounced paryĕtĭbus.

A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long: as, īnstō , īnfāns , sīgnum .

Quantity of Syllables

A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong: as, cā-rus , ō-men, foe-dus .

Position. A syllable is long by position if its vowel, though short, is followed by two consonants or a double consonant: as, adventus , cortex .

But if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r the syllable may be either long or short (common); as, alacris or alăcris; patris or pătris .

Vowels should be pronounced long or short in accordance with their natural quantity without regard to the length of the syllable by position. The rules of Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels before a word beginning with two consonants. A syllable is long if its vowel is followed by consonant i (except in bĭiugis , quadrĭiugis ): see § 11 . d. Compounds of iaciō , though written with one i , commonly retain the long vowel of the prepositions with which they are compounded, as if before a consonant, and, if the vowel of the preposition is short, the first syllable is long by position on the principle of § 11 . e. obicis hostī (at the end of a hexameter, Aen. 4.549).

inicit et saltū (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. 9.552).

prōice tēla manū (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. 6.836).

Later poets sometimes shorten the preposition in trisyllabic forms, and prepositions ending in a vowel are sometimes contracted as if the verb began with a vowel. (1) cūr an|nōs ŏbĭ|cis (Claud. iv C. H. 264).

(2) reīcĕ că|pellās (Ecl. 3.96, at end).

The y or w sound resulting from synæresis (§ 642 ) has the effect of a consonant in making position: as, abi etis ( abyetis ), fl uvi ōrum ( fluvyōrum ). Conversely. when the semivowel becomes a vowel, position is lost: as, sĭlŭae , for s ilv ae .

FINAL SYLLABLES

The Quantity of Final Syllables is as follows:—

Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long: as, mē, tū , hī , nē .

The attached particles -nĕ, -quĕ, -vĕ, -cĕ, -ptĕ, and rĕ- (rĕd-) are short; sē- (sēd-) and dī- are long. Thus, sēcēdit , sēditiō , exercitumquĕ rĕdūcit , dīmittō . But re- is often long in rēligiō ( relligiō ), rētulī ( rettulī ), rēpulī ( reppulī ).

Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long: as, sōl , ōs ( ōris ), bōs , pār , vās ( vāsis ), vēr, vīs .

Exceptions. cŏr , fĕl, lăc, mĕl, ŏs ( ossis ), văs ( vădis ), vĭr, tŏt , quŏt .

Most monosyllabic Particles are short: as, ăn, ĭn, cĭs, nĕc . But crās , cūr , ēn, nōn , quīn , sīn—with adverbs in c: as, hīc , hūc , sīc—are long.

Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative sin gular of the first declension; in all other words final a is long. Thus, eă stellă (nominative), cum eā stellā (ablative); frūstrā , vocā (imperative), posteā , trīgintā .

Exceptions. ēiă , ită , quiă , pută (suppose); and, in late use, trīgintă etc.

Final e is short: as in nūbĕ , dūcitĕ , saepĕ .

Exceptions.—Final e is long—

In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declension, with others of like form: as, altē , longē , miserē, apertē , saepissimē . So ferē , fermē .

But it is short in benĕ , malĕ; īnfernĕ , supernĕ .

In nouns of the fifth declension: as, fidē (also famē ), faciē , hodiē , quārē ( quā rē ).

In Greek neuters plural of the second declension: as, cētē; and in some other Greek words: Phoebē,Circē, Andromachē, etc.

In the imperative singular of the second conjugation: as, vidē .

But sometimes cavĕ, habĕ , tacĕ , valĕ, vidĕ (cf. § 629. b. 1).

Final i is long: as in turrī , fīlī , audī .

Exceptions.—Final i is common in mihi , tibi , sibi , ibi , ubi; and short in nisĭ, quasĭ, sīcutĭ, cuĭ (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives: as, Alexĭ.

Final o is common: but long in datives and ablatives; also in nouns of the third declension. It is almost invariably long in verbs before the time of Ovid.

Exceptions. citŏ , modŏ ( dummodŏ ), immŏ , profectŏ , egŏ , duŏ , cedŏ (the imperative); so sometimes octŏ , īlicŏ , etc., particularly in later writers.

Final u is long. Final y is short

Final as, es , os , are long; final is, as, ys, are short: as, nefās , rūpēs, servōs (accusative), honōs; hostĭs, amīcŭs , Tethys.

Exceptions.—

as is short in Greek plural accusatives: as, lampadăs; and in anăs.

es is short in the nominative of nouns of the third declension (lingual) having a short vowel in the stem The quantity of the stem-vowel may be seen in the genitive singular. : as,mīlĕs (-ĭtis),obsĕs (-˘dis),—except abiēs ,ariēs, pariēs , pēs; in the present of esse (ĕs, adĕs); in the preposition penĕs , and in the plural of Greek nouns: as,hērōĕs, lampadĕs .

os is short in compŏs, impŏs; in the Greek nominative ending: as, barbitŏs; in the old nominative of the second declension: as,servŏs (later servus ).

is in plural cases is long: as in bonīs , nōbīs , vōbīs , omnīs (accusative plural).

is is long in the verb forms fīs , sīs , vīs (with quīvīs etc.), velīs , mālīs , nōlīs , edīs; in the second person singular of the present indicative active in the fourth conjugation: as, audīs; and sometimes in the forms in -eris (future perfect indicative or perfect subjunctive).

us is long in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of the fourth declension; and in nouns of the third declension having ū (long) in the stem: as, virtūs (-ūtis),incūs (-¯dis). But pecŭs , -ŭdis.

Of other final syllables, those ending in a single consonant are short Thus, amăt , amātŭr; dōnĕc, făc , procŭl , iubăr .

Exceptions. hīc (also hĭc ); allēc; the ablatives illōc , etc.; certain adverbs in -c: as, illīc , istūc; liēn, and some Greek nouns: as, āēr , aethēr , crātēr.

Perfects and Perfect Participles

Perfects and Perfect Participles of two syllables have the first syllable long: as, iūvī , iūtum ( iŭvō ), vīdī , vīsum ( vĭdeō ); fūgī ( fŭgiō ); vēnī ( vĕniō ).

Exceptions.—bĭbī, dĕdī , fĭdī, scĭdī, stĕtī , stĭtī, tŭlī; cĭtum, dătum,ĭtum, lĭtum, quĭtum, rătum , rŭtum , sătum , sĭtum, stătum . In some compounds of stō , stātum is found (long), as praestātum .

In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short; the vowel of the following syllable is, also, usually short: as, cĕcĭdī ( cădō ), dĭdĭcī ( discō ), pŭpŭgī ( pungō ), cŭcŭrrī ( currō ), tĕtĕndī ( tendō ), mŏmŏrdī ( mordeō ). But cĕcīdī from caedō , pepēdī from pēdō .

Derivatives

Rules for the Quantity of Derivatives are:—

Forms from the same stem have the same quantity: as, ămō , ămāvistī; gĕnus, gĕneris.

Exceptions.—

bōs , lār,mās, pār , pēs , sāl,—alsoarbōs,—have a long vowel in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short (cf. genitive bŏvis etc.).

Nouns in -or, genitive -ōris, have the vowel shortened before the final r: as,honŏr. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in early Latin these nominatives are often found long.)

Verb-forms with vowel originally long regularly shorten it before final m, r, ort: as, amĕm , amĕr , dīcerĕr, amĕt (compare amēmus ), dīcerĕt , audĭt,fĭt. The final syllable in t of the perfect was long in old Latin, but is short in the classic period.

A few long stem-syllables are shortened: as,ācer, ăcerbus . Sodē-iĕrō andpē-iĕrō, weakened from iūrō .

Forms from the same root often show inherited variations of vowel quantity (see § 17): as, dīcō (cf. maledĭcus ); dūcō (dŭx, dŭcis); fīdō ( perfĭdus ) vōx , vōcis ( vŏcō ); lēx , lēgis ( lĕgō ).

Compounds retain the quantity of the words which compose them as, oc-cĭdō ( cădō ), oc-cīdō ( caedō ), in-īquus ( aequus ). Greek words compounded with pro/ have o short: as, prŏphēta , prŏlŏgus . Some Latin compounds of prō have o short: as, prŏficīscor , prŏfiteor . Compounds with ne vary: as, nĕfās , nĕgō , nĕqueō , nēquam .

RHYTHM

The essence of Rhythm in poetry is the regular recurrence of syllables pronounced with more stress than those intervening. To produce this effect in its perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress. But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacrificed somewhat to the necessary length of the words; and, on the other hand, the words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in different degrees; one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another the pronunciation of the words.

The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other hand, —as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse,—was not so restricted. But the purely metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words (like music) into measures of equal times, technically called Feet. The strict rhythm was doubtless more closely followed in poetry that was sung than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In neither language, however, is the time perfectly preserved, even in single measures: and there are some cases in which the regularity of the time between the ictuses is disturbed.

The Greeks and Romans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time required for their pronunciation, a long syllable having twice the metrical value of a short one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length, or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced in less than their proper time, though they were perhaps distinguishable in time from one

short (see § 608. c, d). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have been slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the apparent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This could, of course, take place only at the end of a word: hence the importance of Cæsura and Diæresis in prosody (§ 611. b, c).

Measures

Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound into equal intervals of time called Measures or Feet.

The most natural division of musical time is into measures consisting of either two or three equal parts. But the ancients also distinguished measures of five equal parts. The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of voice on one or the other part of the measure. This stress is called the Ictus ( beat ), or metrical accent (see § 611 . a ).

The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called a Mora. It is represented by the sign ˘, or in musical notation by the eighth note or quaver ().

A long syllable is regularly equal to two moræ, and is represented by the sign ¯, or by the quarter note or crotchet ().

A long syllable may be protracted, so as to occupy the time of three or four moræ. Such a syllable, if equal to three moræ, is represented by the sign (or dotted quarter ); if equal to four, by (or the half note or minim, ).

A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >.

A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora.

A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of verses, to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the sign ^; one of two moræ by the sign [macrcirc].

One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper beginning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacrūsis or prelude. The same thing occurs in modern poetry, and in modern music any unaccented syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i.e. they make an incomplete measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the following accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would seem that there was an original form of Indo-European poetry which was iambic in its structure, or which, at least, accented the second syllable rather than the first.

The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure.

The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse, to gether with their musical notation, are the following:—

a. TRIPLE OR UNEQUAL MEASURES (3/8) Called diplasic , the two parts (Thesis and Arsis ) being in the ratio of 2 to 1.

Trochee (): as, rēgĭs.

Iambus (): as, dŭcēs.

Tribrach Not found as a fundamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee or Iambus (): as, hŏmĭnĭs.

b. DOUBLE OR EQUAL MEASURES (2/4)

Dactyl (): as, cōnsŭlĭs.

Anapæst (): as, mŏnĭtōs.

Spondee (): as, rēgēs.

c. SIX-TIMED MEASURES (3/4)

Ionic ā mâiōre (): as, cōnfēcĕrăt.

Ionic ā minōre (): as, rĕtŭlissent.

Choriambus (): as, contŭlĕrant.

d. QUINARY OR HEMIOLIC Called hemiolic , the two parts being in the ratio of 1 to 11/2, or of 2 to 3. MEASURES (5/8)

Cretic (): as, cōnsŭlēs.

Pæon prīmus（): as, cōnsŭlĭbŭs.

Pæon quārtus (): as, ĭtĭnĕrì.

Bacchīus (): as, ămīcōs.

Several compound feet are mentioned by the grammarians, viz. Pyrrhic （˘ ˘); Amphibrach （˘ ¯ ˘); Antibacchīus (¯ ¯ ˘); Proceleusmatic (˘ ˘ ˘ ˘); the Molossus (¯ ¯ ¯); the 2d and 3d Pæon , having a long syllable in the 2d or 3d place, with three short ones; 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitrĭtus , having a short syllable in the 1st, 2d, 3d, or 4th place, with three long ones.

Irrational Feet

Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy equal time, but may be contracted or prolonged to suit the series in which they occur. They are then called irrational, because the thesis and arsis do not have their normal ratio. It seems probable that both thesis and arsis of an irrational foot were affected by the necessity of preserving the rhythmical time of the foot. Such are:—

Irrational Spondee: (in place of a Trochee) [acutemacr] > (in place of an Iambus) > [acutemacr]

Cyclic Dactyl (in place of a Trochee):

Cyclic Anapæst (in place of an Iambus):

The apparent dactyl > [acutebreve] ˘, as a substitute for an iambus, and the apparent anapæst [acutebreve] ˘ >, as a substitute for a trochee, occur frequently in the dramatic writers. Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or chant, with instrumental accompaniment; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing. It must be borne in mind that in ancient music—which in this differs widely from modern—the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The lyric poetry was to be sung; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author. To this day a poet is said conventionally to “sing.”

Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the verse gives us the time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however, as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to certain laws of so-called “Rhythmic,” as will be explained below. In reading ancient verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the relative length of syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure; and to remember that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Poetry should not be scanned, but read metrically.

Substitution

In many cases measures of the same time may be substituted for each other, a long syllable taking the place of two short ones, or two short syllables the place of a long one.

In the former case the measure is said to be contracted; in the latter, to be resolved:—

A Spondee (¯ ¯) may take the place of a Dactyl (¯ ˘ ˘) or an Anapæst (˘ ˘ ¯); and a Tribrach (˘ ˘ ˘) may take the place of a Trochee (¯ ˘) or an Iambus (˘ ¯). The optional substitution of one long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign ˘˘.

When a long syllable having the Ictus (§ 611. a) is resolved, the ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables; but for convenience the mark of accent is placed on the first:—

núnc ex|p˘´rĭar | sítne ă|cē´tō | tĭ´bĭ cŏr | ā´crein | péctŏ|rĕ´.—Pl. Bac. 405.

The Musical Accent

That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice (the musical accent) is called the Thesis; the unaccented part is called the Arsis. The Thesis signifies properly the putting down ( qe/sis , from ti/qhmi , put , place ) of the foot in beating time, in the march or dance (“downward beat”), and the Arsis the raising ( a)/rsis , from a)ei/rw , raise ） of the foot (“upward beat”). By the Latin grammarians these terms were made to mean, respectively, the ending and the beginning of a measure. By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of Bentley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accordance with their ancient meaning, as has now become more common. This metrical accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence of the rhythm of poetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept in mind. The error mentioned arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a definition which was true only of iambic or anapæstic.

The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the Ictus (beat). It is marked thus: [acutemacr] ˘ ˘.

The ending of a word within a measure is called Cæsura. When this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Cæsura of the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm.

The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure is called Diæresis.

VERSIFICATION

THE VERSE

A single line of poetry—that is, a series of feet set in a recognized order—is called a Verse. The word Verse ( versus ） signifies a turning back , i.e. to begin again in like manner, as opposed to Prose ( prorsus or prōversus ), which means straight ahead. Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series ( hemistichs ), but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic and Trochaie Tetrameter by the Diæresis , in Dactylic Hexameter by the Cæsura.

A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, having a pause to fill the measure; when the end syllable is not lacking, the verse is called Acatalectic, and has no such pause.

A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a pause: This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being caused by the retention of an originally long quantity. it is then said to be long by Diastole:— nostrōrum obruimur,oriturque miserrima caedēs.—Aen. 2.411.

The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short (syllaba anceps).

Scansion and Elision

To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion ( scānsiō , a climbing or advance by steps, from scandō ). In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the measure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words themselves, as is often done m scanning.

In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel or with h. This is called Elision (bruising). The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is sometimes adopted in English, particularly in the older poets:— T' inveigle and invite th' unwary sense.— Comus 538.

In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, however, they should be sounded lightly.

In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this letter even before a consonant (cf. § 15.7):— seniō cōnfectu s quiēscit.—Enn. (Cat. M. 14).

Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synalœpha ( smearing ). Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the next verse begins with a vowel: this is called Synapheia ( binding ).

A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manner when the next word begins with a vowel or h: this is called Ecthlipsis (squeezing out):— mōnstrum horrendum, īnforme, ingēns, cui lūmen adēmptum.

—Aen. 3.658.

Final m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before the initial vowel of the following word was easy. The monosyllables dō , dem , spē , spem , sim , stō , stem , quī (plural), and monosyllabic interjections are never elided; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic verse. Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words.

Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus (gaping). The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases.

FORMS OF VERSE

A verse receives its name from its dominant or fundamental foot: as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapœstic; and from the number of measures (single or double) which it contains: as, Hexameter, Tetrameter, Trimeter, Dimeter. Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapæstic verses are measured not by single feet, but by pairs ( dipodia ), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter.

A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of verses ranged in a fixed order.

Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet: as, Sapphic (from Sappho), Alcaic (from Alcæus), Archilochian (from Archilochus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on.

DACTYLIC VERSE

Dactylic Hexameter

The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theoretically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus:—

The last foot is usually said to be a spondee , but is in reality a trochee standing for a dactyl, since the final syllable is not measured.

For any foot, except the fifth, a spondee may be substituted.

Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot; the verse is then called spondaic and usually ends with a word of four syllables.

Thus in Ecl. 4.49the verse ends with incrēmentum .

The hexameter has regularly one principal cæsura—sometimes two— almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense.

The principal cæsura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. See examples in d.

It may also be after the thesis(less commonly in the arsis) of the fourth foot. In this case there is often another cæsura in the second foot, so that the verse is divided into three parts:— pártĕ fĕ|rō´x || ār|dē´nsqueŏcŭ|lī´s || et | síbĭlă | cóllă.—Aen. 5.277.

Often the only indication of the principal among a number of cæsuras is the break in the sense. A cæsura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A cæsura occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called feminine (as in the fifth foot of the third and fourth verses in d). A cæsura may also be found in any foot of the verse, but a proper cæsural pause could hardly occur in the first or sixth.

When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a diæresis) is sometimes improperly called bucolic cæsura, from its frequency in pastoral poetry.

The first seven verses of the Æneid, divided according to the foregoing rules, will appear as follows. The principal cæsura in each verse is marked by double lines:— Armă vĭ|rumquĕ că|nō || Trō|iae quī | prīmŭs ăb | ōrīs

Ītălĭ|am fā|tō prŏfŭ|gus || Lā|vīniăquĕ | vēnĭt

lītŏră, | multum il|le et ter|rīs || iac|tātŭs ĕt | altō

vī sŭpĕ|rum || sae|vae mĕmŏ|rem Iū|nōnĭs ŏb | īrăm;

multă quŏ|que et bel|lō pas|sus || dum | condĕrĕt | urbĕm,

īnfer|retquĕ dĕ|ōs Lătĭ|ō, || gĕnŭs | undĕ Lă|tīnum,

Albā|nīquĕ pă|trēs, || at|que altae | moenĭă | Rōmae.

The feminine cæsurais seen in the following:—

Dīs gĕnĭ|tī pŏtŭ|ērĕ: || tĕ|nent mĕdĭ|a omnĭă| silvae.—Aen. 6.131. The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse:— Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward,

Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired Æthiop people,

Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver,

Skilful, but feeble of heart; for they know not the lords of Olympus,

Lovers of men; neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athené,

Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle;

Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo,

Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water.

—Kingsley's Andromeda.

Elegiac Stanza

The Elegiac Stanza consists of two verses,—a Hexameter followed by a Pentameter. Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee , and two anapæsts), as follows:—

The Pentameter verse is the same as the Hexameter, except that it omits the last half of the third foot and of the sixth foot:—

The Pentameter verse is therefore to be scanned as two half-verses, the second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single syllable.

The Pentameter has no regular Cæsura; but the first half-verse must always end with a word (diœresis, § 611. c), which is followed by a pause to complete the measure. The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the protraction of the preceding syllable:—

The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac Stanza:— cum sŭbĭt | illī|us || trīs|tissĭmă | noctĭs ĭ|māgō quā mìní | suprē|mum [macrcirc] || tempŭs ĭn | urbĕ fŭ|ĭt, [macrcirc]

cum rĕpĕ|tō noc|tem || quā | tot mĭhĭ | cāră rĕ|līquī, lābĭtŭr | ex ŏcŭ|līs [macrcirc] || nunc quŏquĕ | guttă mĕ|īs. [macrcirc]

iam prŏpĕ | lūx ădĕ|rat || quā | mē dis|cēdĕrĕ | Caesar fīnĭbŭs | extrē|mae [macrcirc] || iussĕrăt | Ausŏnĭ|ae. [macrcirc]

—Ov. Trist. 1.3.

The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of compositions,—epistolary, amatory, and mournful,—and was especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been illustrated in English verse, imitated from the German:— In the Hex|ameter | rises || the | fountain's | silvery | column;

In the Pen|tameter | aye || falling in | melody | back.

Other Dactylic Verses

Other dactylic verses or half-verses are occasionally used by the lyric poets.

The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, forming the Alcmanian Strophe, as follows:— ō for|tēs pê|iōrăquĕ | passī

mēcum | saepĕ vĭ|rī, || nunc | vīnō | pellĭtĕ | cūrās;

crās in|gēns ĭtĕ|rābĭmŭs | aequŏr.

—Hor. Od. 1.7(so 28; Ep. 12).

The Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) consists of half a pentameter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter to form the First Archilochian Strophe:— diffū|gērĕ nĭ|vēs, || rĕdĕ|unt iam | grāmĭnă | campīs,

arbŏrĭ|busquĕ cŏ|mae;

mūtat | terră vĭ|cēs || et | dēcrēs|centĭă | rīpās

flūmĭnă | praetĕrĕ|unt.—Hor. Od. 4.7.

For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian heptameter, alternating with iambic trimeter catalectic), see § 626. 11.

IAMBIC VERSE

Iambic Trimeter

The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of dramatic dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing a double Iambus (iambic dipody). The cæsura is usually in the third foot. The sign [gtbreve] [acutemacr] denotes possible substitution of an irrational spondee (>[acutemacr]) for an iambus (˘[acutemacr]).

The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry (1) as an independent system, or (2) alternating with the Dimeter to form the Iambic Strophe, as follows:— (1) iam iam éffĭcā´|cī || dō´ mănū´s | scĭéntĭaé

suppléx ĕt ō´|rō || rē´gnă pér | Prŏsérpĭnaé,

pĕr ét Dĭā´|nae || nō´n mŏvén|dă nū´mĭnă´,

pĕr átquĕ líb|rōs || cármĭnúm | văléntĭŭ´m

dēfī´xă caé|lō || dē´vŏcā´|rĕ sī´dĕră´,

Cănī´diă, pár|cĕ || vō´cĭbús | tandém săcrī´s,

cĭtúmquĕ rét|rŏ || rétrŏ sól|vĕ túrbĭnĕ´m.—Hor. Epod. 17.

The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the movement in English:— Oh! stay, Canidia, stay thy rites of sorcery,

Thy charm unbinding backward let thy swift wheel fly!

(2) bĕā´tŭs íl|lĕ || quī´ prŏcúl | nĕgō´tĭī´s,

ut prī´scă gē´ns | mortā´lĭŭ´m,

pătérnă rū´|ră || bū´bŭs éx|ercét sŭī´s,

sŏlū´tŭs óm|nī fē´nŏrĕ´;

nĕque éxcĭtā´|tur || clássĭcō´ | mīlés trŭcī`,

nĕque hórrĕt ī´|rātúm mărĕ´.—Hor. Epod. 2.

In the stricter form of Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee (> [acutemacr]) or its equivalent (a cyclic anapæst ˘ ˘[acutemacr] or an apparent dactyl > [acutebreve] ˘ § 609. e) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody A tribrach (˘ [acutebreve] ˘) may stand for an iambus anywhere except in the last place. In the comic poets any of these forms or the proceleusmatic (˘˘ [acutebreve] ˘） may be substituted in any foot except the last:— The greater freedom of substitution in the comedy is due to the fact that the verse is regarded as made up of separate feet rather than of dipodies. ō lū´cĭs ál|mĕ rē´ctŏr || ét | caelī´ dĕcŭ´s!

quī altérnă cúr|rū spă´tĭă || flám|mĭfĕrō ámbĭēns,

illū´strĕ laé|tīs || éxsĕrís | terrī´s căpŭ´t.

—Sen. Herc. Fur. 592-94.

quid quaérĭs? án|nōs || séxāgín|tā nā´tŭs ĕ´s.

—Ter. Haut. 62.

hŏmō´ sum: hūmā´|nī || nī´l ā mē ă´lĭ|ēnúm pŭtō´.

vel mē´ mŏnē´|re hōc || vél percón|tārī´ pŭtā´.

id. 77, 78.

The Choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last iambus:— aequē ést bĕā´|tŭs || ác pŏē´|mă cúm scrī´bĭt:

tam gaúdĕt ín | sē, || támquĕ sē íp|sĕ mī´rā´tŭr.

—Catul. 23.15, 16.

The verse may also be regarded as trochaic with anacrusis: as,—

The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows:—

It is used in combination with other measures (see § 626. 11), and is shown in the following:— Vulcā´nŭs ā´r|dēns || ū´rĭt óf|fĭcī´nā´s.—Hor. Od. 1.4.

or in English:— On purple peaks a deeper shade descending.—Scott.

Other Iambic Measures

Other forms of Iambic verse are the following:—

The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic ( Septēnārius ). This consists of seven and a half iambic feet, with diæresis after the fourth and with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter:— nam idcírcō arcés|sor, nū´ptĭā´s || quod mī ádpărā´|rī sē´nsĭt.

quĭbus quĭ´dĕm quam fă´cĭ|lĕ pŏ´tŭĕrát || quĭē´scī sī hī´c |quĭē´ssĕt !

—Ter. And. 690, 691.

The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows:—

Its movement is like the following:—

In góod king Chárles's gólden daýs, when lóyaltý no hárm meant. —Vicar of Bray.

The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic ( Octōnārius ). This consists of right full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter. Like the Septenarius it is used in lively dialogue:— dīcă´t ĕam dă´rĕ | nōs Phórmĭō´|nī || nū´ptum nē´ | suscē´nsĕă´t;

et mă´gĭs esse íl|lum ĭdō´nĕúm, || quī ipsī´ sitfă´mĭ|lĭā´rĭō´r.

—Ter. Ph. 720, 721.

The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows:—

The Iambic Dimeter. This may be either acatalectic or catalectic.

The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It is used in combination with some longer verse (see § 618. a).

The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet. It is used only in choruses:— quōnám crŭén|tă Maénās,

praecéps ămō´|rĕ saévō,

răpĭtúr quŏd ím|pŏténtī

făcĭnús părát | fŭrō´rĕ?—Sen. Med. 850-853.

Owing to the fact that in modern music each measure begins with a downward beat, some scholars regard all these forms of Iambic verse as Trochaic verse with anacrusis (§ 618 . c. N.).

TROCHAIC VERSE

The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetrameter Catalectic ( Septēnārius ), consisting of four dipodies, the last of which lacks a syllable. There is regularly diæresis after the fourth foot:—

In musical notation:— ád tē advĕ´nĭō, spém, sălū´tem, || consĭlĭum, aúxĭlĭum éxpĕtē´ns. —Ter. And. 319.

In English verse:—

Téll me nót in moúrnful númbers || lífe is bút an émpty dreám. —Longfellow.

In the stricter form of the Septenarius substitutions are allowed only in the even feet, but in comedy the tribrach [acutebreve] ˘ ˘, or an irrational spondee [acutemacr] >, cyclic dactyl [acutemacr] ˘˘, or apparent anapæst [acutebreve] ˘ >, may be substituted for any of the first six feet; a tribrach for the seventh:— tĭdem hăbét pĕtă|sum ác vestī´tum: || támcōnsĭ´mĭlist | átque ĕgŏ´.

sū´ră, pē´s, stă|tū´ră, tō´nsŭs, || ŏ´cŭlī, nā´sum, | vél lăbră´,

mā´lae, méntum, | bárbă, cóllus; || tō´tus! quíd ver|bī´s ŏpúst?

sī´ tergúm cĭ|cā´trīcō´sum, || nihíl hōc sĭ´mĭlist | sĭ´mĭlĭŭ´s.

—Pl. Am. 443-446.

The metrical scheme of these four verses is as follows:—

The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic ( Octōnārius ), consisting of four complete dipodies, occurs in the lyrical parts of comedy.

Substitutions as in the Septenarius are allowed except in the last foot.

Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in eombination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines:— nō´n ĕbúr nè|que aúrĕŭ´m. [Dimeter Catalectic.]

mĕā´ rĕnī´|dĕt ín dŏmō´ | lăcū´nă´r. [Iambic Trimeter Catalectic.]

—Hor Od. 2.18.

MIXED MEASURES

Different measures may be combined in the same verse in two different ways. Either (1) a series of one kind is simply joined to a series of another kind (compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music); or (2) single feet of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational (see § 609.e).

When enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a change of rhythm; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry.

The following verses, combining different rhythmical series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry:—

Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic Tripody):— sólvĭtŭr | ā´crĭs hĭ|éms grā|tā´ vĭcĕ || vē´rĭs | étFă|vō´nī.—Hor. Od. 1.4. It is possible that the dactyls were cyclic; but the change of measure seems more probable.

Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dactylic Penthemim); Iambic Dimeter:— scríbĕrĕ | vérsĭcŭ|lō´s || ămō´rĕ pér|culsúm grăvī´.—Hor. Epod. 11.2.

LOGAŒDIC VERSE

Trochaic verses, containing in regular prescribed positions irrational measures or irrational feet (cf. § 609. e), are called Logaœdic. The principal logaœdic forms are—

Logaœdic Tetrapody (four feet): GLYCONIC.

Logaœdic Tripody (three feet): PHERECRATIC (often treated as a syncopated Tetrapody Catalectic).

Logaœdic Dipody (two feet): this may be regarded as a short Pherecratic.

This mixture of irrational measures gives an effect approaching that of prose: hence the name Logaœdic ( lo/gos, a)oidh/ ). These measures originated in the Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed on the basis of the three forms given above: viz., Logaœdic systems consisting respectively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Logaœdic Pentapody consists of five feet but is to be regarded as composed of two of the others.

Each logaœdic form contains a single dactyl, Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dacty and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were im tated by the Romans as distinct metres. which may be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be catalectic or acatalectic:—

The verses constructed upon the several Logaœdic form or models are the following:—

Glyconic (Second Glyconic, catalectic):— Rō´mae | prī´ncĭpĭs | úrbĭ|ù´m. In English:— Fórms more réal than líving mán.—Shelley.

In this and most of the succeeding forms the foot preceding the dactyl is always irrational in Horace, consisting of an irrational spondee (¯>).

Aristophanic (First Pherecratic):— témpĕrăt |ō´ră | frē´nīs.—Hor. Od. 1.8. It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding protracting the last two syllables:—

Adonic (First Pherecratic, shortened):— Térrŭĭt | úrbĕm.—Hor. Or perhaps:—

Pherecratic (Second Pherecratic):— crā´s dōnā´bĕrĭs haédō´.—Hor. Often scanned as follows:—

Lesser Asclepiadic (Second Pherecratic with syncope and First Pherecraticcatalectic):— Maécēnā´s ătăvī´s ē´dĭtĕ rē´gĭbŭ´s.—Hor.

Greater Asclepiadic (the same as 5, with a syncopated Logaœdic Dipodyinterposed):— tū´ nē quaésĭĕrís—scī´rĕ nĕfā´s—quém mĭhĭ, quém tĭbī´.—Hor.

Lesser Sapphic (Logaœdic Pentapody, with dactyl in the third place):— íntĕgér vītaé scĕlĕrísquĕ pū´rŭ´s.—Hor. Or in English:— Brílliant hópes, all wóven in górgeous tíssùes.—Longfellow.

Greater Sapphic (Third Glyconic; First Pherecratic):— tē´ dĕō´s ōrō´ Sybărín || cū´r prŏpĕrā´s ămándō´.—Hor.

Lesser Alcaic (Logaœdic Tetrapody, two irrational dactyls, two trochees):— vírgĭnĭbús pŭĕrī´squĕ cántō.—Hor.

Greater Alcaic (Logaœdic Pentapody, catalectic, with anacrusis, and dactyl in the third place,—compare Lesser Sapphic):— iūstum ét tĕnā´cem || prō´pŏsĭtī´ vĭrŭ´m.—Hor. Only the above logaœdic forms are employed by Horace.

Phalæcean (Logaœdic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second place):— quaénam tē´ mălă mē´ns, mĭséllī Rā´ ui dī, ă´git praécĭpĭtem ín mĕō´s ĭámbōs?—Catull. xl. In English:— Górgeous flo[wacute]erets ín the súnlight shíning.—Longfellow.

Glyconic Pherecratic (Second Glyconic with syncope, and Second Pherecratic):— ō´ Cŏlō´nĭă quaé cŭpís || póntĕ lū´dĕrĕ lóngō´.—Catull. xvii.

METRES OF HORACE

The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza. These are:—

Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9) The figures refer to the foregoing list (§ 625 ). :— iūstum ét tenā´cem || prō´positī´ virúm

nōn cī´viumā´rdor || prā´va iubéntiúm,

nōn vúltus ī´nstantís tyránnī

ménte quatít solidā´, nequeAúster.—Od. 3.3.

(Found in Od. i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37; ii. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20; iii. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; iv. 4, 9, 14, 15.) The Alcaic Strophe is named after the Greek poet Alcæus of Lesbos , and was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form. It is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza.

Sapphic (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one Adonic (3):— iám satís terrī´s || nivis átque dī´rae

grándinís mīsít || pater ét rubénte

déxterā´ sacrā´s || iaculā´tus árcīs

térruit úrbem.—Od. 1.2.

(Found in Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16; iii. 8, 11, 141820, 22, 27; iv. 2, 6, 11; Carm. Saec.)

The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos , and was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five Odes— more frequently than any other except the Alcaic.

Sapphic (major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater Sapphic (8):— Lȳ´dia dī´c, per ómnī´s

tē´ deō´s ōrō´, Sybarín || cū´r properā´s amándō´.—Od. 1.8.

Asclepiadean I (minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiadics (5):— éxēgī´ monuméntum|| aére perénniús

rē´gālī´que sitū´ || pȳ´ramidumáltiús.—Od. 3.30.

(Found in Od. i. 1; 3.30; 4.8.)

Asclepiadean II, consisting of one Glyconic (1) and one Lesser Asclepiadic (5):— nā´vis quaé tibi crē´ditúm

dē´bēs Vérgiliúm, || fī´nibus Átticī´s

réddās íncolumém, precór,

ét servē´s animaé || dī´midiúm meaé.—Od. 1.3.

(Found in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36; iii. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv. i, 3.)

Asclepiadean III, consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5) and one Glyconic (1):— quís dēsī´deriō´ || sít pudor aút modús

tám cārī´ capitís? || praécipe lū´gubrī´s

cántūs, Mélpomenē´, || cuí liquidám patér

vō´cem cúm citharā´ dedít.—Od. 1.24.

(Found in Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 33; 2.12; 3.10, 16; iv. 5, 12.)

Asclepiadean IV, consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), one Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1):— ō´ fōns Bándusiaé || spléndidiór vitrō´,

dúlcī dī´gne merō´, || nō´n sine flō´ribús,

crā´s dōnā´beris haédō´

cuí frōns túrgida córnibús.—Od. 3.13.

(Found in Od. i. 5, 14, 21, 23; iii. 7, 13; 4.13.)

Asclepiadean V (major), consisting of Greater Asclepiadics (6):— tū´ nē quaésierís, || scī´re nefā´s! || quém mihi, quém tibī´

fī´nem dī´ dederínt, || Leúconoē´, || néc Babylō´niō´s

téntārís numerō´s.—Od. 1.11.

(Found in Od. 1.11, 18; 4.10.)

Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (§ 615) alternating with Tetrameter (§ 617. a). (Od. i. 7, 28; Epod. 12.)

Archilochian I, consisting of a Dactylic Hexameter alternating with a Dactylic Penthemim (see § 617. b). (Od. 4.7.)

Archilochian IV, consisting of a Greater Archilochian (heptameter, § 622. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (§ 618. d). The stanza consists of two pairs of verses:— sólvitur ā´cris hiéms grātā´ vice || Vē´ris ét Favō´nī,

trahúntque síccās || mā´chinaé carī´nā´s;

ác neque iám stabulī´s gaudét pecus, || aút arā´tor ī´gnī,

nec prā´ta cā´nīs || álbicánt pruī´nī´s.—Od. 1.4.

Iambic Trimeter alone (see § 618). (Epod. 17.)

Iambic Strophe (see § 618. a). (Epod. 1-10.)

Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter:— nóx erat, ét caelō´ || fulgē´bat lū´na serē´nō

intér minō´ra sī´derá,

cúm tū, mā´gnōrúm || nūmén laesū´ra deō´rum,

in vérba iū´rābā´s meá.—Epod. 15. (So in Epod. 14.)

Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (§ 618):— áltera iám teritúr || bellī´s cīvī´libus aétās,

suī´s et ípsa Rō´ma || vī´ribús ruít.—Epod. 16.

Verse of Four Lesser Ionics (§ 609. c.2):— miserārumest | nequeamōrī | dare lūdum | neque dulcī

mala vīnō | laver eaut ex|animārī | metuentīs.—Od. 3.12.

Iambic Trimeter (§ 618); Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. b); Iambic Dimeter:— Pettī´, nihíl mē || sī´cut ánteā´ iuvát

scrī´bere vérsiculō´s || amō´re pérculsúm gravī´.—Epod. 11.

Dactylic Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. b): hórrida témpestā´s || caelúm contrā´xit, et ímbrēs

nivē´sque dē´dūcúnt Iovém; || núnc mare, núnc silüaé ...

—Epod. 13.

Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see § 620. c).

INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE

LIB. I

Maecēnās atavīs: 4.

Iam satis terrīs: 2.

Sīc tē dīva: 5.

Solvitur ācris hiems: 11.

Quis multā: 7.

Scrībēris Variō: 6.

Laudābunt aliī: 9.

Lȳdia dīc: 3.

Vidēs ut altā: 1.

Mercurī fācunde nepōs: 2.

Tū nē quaesieris: 8.

Quem virum: 2.

Cum tū Lȳdia: 5.

Ō nāvis: 7.

Pāstor cum traheret: 6.

Ō mātre pulchrā: 1.

Vēlōx amoenum: 1.

Nūllam Vāre: 8.

Māter saeva: 5.

Vīle pōtābis: 2.

Dīānam tenerae: 7.

Integer vītae: 2.

Vītās īnuleō: 7.

Quis dēsīderiō: 6.

Parcius iūnctās: 2.

Mūsīs amīcus: 1.

Nātīs in ūsum: 1.

Tē maris: 9.

Iccī beātīs: 1.

Ō Venus: 2.

Quid dēdicātum: 1.

Poscimur: 2.

Albī nē doleās: 6.

Parcus deōrum: 1.

Ō dīva: 1.

Et tūre: 5.

Nunc est bibendum: 1.

Persicōs ōdī: 2.

LIB. II

Mōtum ex Metellō: 1.

Nūllus argentō: 2.

Aequam mementō: 1.

Nē sit ancillae: 2.

Nōndum subāctā: 1.

Septimī Gādēs: 2.

Ō saepe mēcum: 1.

Ūlla sī iūris: 2.

Nōn semper imbrēs: 1.

Rēctius vīvēs: 2.

Quid bellicōsus: 1.

Nōlīs longa: 6.

Ille et nefāstō: 1.

Ēheu fugācēs: 1.

Iam pauca: 1.

Ōtium dīvōs: 2.

Cūr mē querellīs: 1.

Nōn ebur: 19.

Bacchum in remōtīs: 1.

Nōn ūsitātā: 1.

LIB. III

Ōdī profānum: 1.

Angustam amīcē: 1.

Iūstum et tenācem: 1.

Dēscende caelō: 1.

Caelō tonantem: 1.

Dēlicta mâiōrum: 1.

Quid flēs: 7.

Mārtiīs caelebs: 2.

Dōnec grātus: 5.

Extrēmum Tanain: 6.

Mercurī nam tē: 2.

Miserārum est: 16.

Ō fōns Bandusiae: 7.

Herculis rītū: 2.

Uxor pauperis: 5.

Inclūsam Danaēn: 6.

Aelī vetustō: 1.

Faune nymphārum: 2.

Quantum dīstet: 5.

Nōn vidēs: 2.

Ō nāta mēcum: 1.

Montium cūstōs: 2.

Caelō supīnās: 1.

Intāctīs opulentior: 5.

Quō mē Bacche: 5.

Vīxī puellīs: 1.

Impiōs parrae: 2.

Fēstō quid: 5.

Tyrrhēna rēgum: 1.

Exēgī monumentum: 4.

LIB. IV

Intermissa Venus: 5.

Pindarum quisquis: 2.

Quem tū Melpomenē: 5

Quālem ministrum: 1.

Dīvīs orte bonīs: 6.

Dīve quem prōlēs: 2.

Diffūgēre nivēs: 10.

Dōnārem paterās: 4.

Nē forte crēdās: 1.

Ō crūdēlis adhūc: 8.

Est mihī nōnum: 2.

Iam vēris comitēs: 6.

Audīvēre Lycē: 7.

Quae cūra patrum: 1.

Phoebus volentem: 1.

Carmen Saeculāre : 2.

EPODES

Ībis Liburnīs: 13.

Beātus ille: 13.

Parentis ōlim: 13.

Lupīs et āgnīs: 13.

At ō deōrum: 13.

Quid immerentīs: 13.

Quō quō scelestī: 13.

Rogāre longō: 13.

Quandō repostum: 13.

Malā solūta: 13.

Pettī nihil: 17.

Quid tibi vīs: 9.

Horrida tempestās: 18.

Mollis inertia: 14.

Nox erat: 14.

Altera iam: 15.

Iam iam efficācī: 12.

Other lyric poets use other combinations of the abovementioned verses:—

a. Glyconics with one Pherecratic (both imperfect):— Dī´ā|naé sŭmŭs | ín fĭdē´

pū´el|l ae ét pŭĕ|rī íntĕgrī´:

Dī´ā|nám, pŭĕ|rī íntĕgrī´

pŭ´el|laéquĕ că|nā´|mŭ´s.—Catull. xxxiv.

b. Sapphics, in a series of single lines, closing with an Adonic:— Án mă|gís dī|rī´ trĕmŭ|ē´rĕ |Mā´nēs

Hércŭ|lem? ét vī|súm cănĭs | ī´nfĕ|rō´rŭm

fū´gĭt | ábrup|tī´s trĕpĭ|dús că|tē´nīs?

fállĭ|múr: lae|tē´ vĕnĭt | éccĕ | vúltū,

quém tŭ|lít Poe|ā´s; hŭmĕ|rísquĕ | tē´lă

géstăt | ét nō|tā´s pŏpŭ|lī´s phă|rétrās

Hércŭlĭs | hē´rēs.—Sen. Herc. Oet. 1600-1606.

c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number (id. Herc. Fur. 830-874, 875-894).

MISCELLANEOUS

Other measures occur in various styles of poetry.

Anapæstic (§ 609. b. 2) verses of various lengths are found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the anapæst:— hĭc hŏmō´st | omnĭum hŏ´mĭ|num praé|cĭpŭō´s

vŏlŭptā´|tĭbŭs gaú|diīsque án|tĕpŏtē´ns.

ĭtă cóm|mŏdă quaé | cŭpĭō ē´|vĕnĭúnt,

quŏd ăgō´ | sŭbĭt, ád|sĕcŭē´ | sĕquĭtŭ´r:

ĭtă gaú|dium súp|pĕdĭtă´t.—Pl. Trin. 1115-1119.

Bacchiac (§ 609. d. 4) verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets,— very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus,—either in verses of two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are

all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be resolved, or the molossus (three longs) substituted:— multā´s rēs | sĭmī´tū in | mĕó cor|dĕ vórsō,

multum ín cō|gĭtándō | dŏlō´rem in|dĭpī´scŏr.

ĕgŏmét mē | cōgō ét mā|cĕrō ét dē|fătī´gō;

măgíster | mĭhi éxer|cĭtō´r ănĭ|mŭs núnc est.

—Pl. Trin. 223-226.

Cretic measures (§ 609. d. 1) occur in the same manner as the Bacchiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete:— ă´mŏr ămī|cús mĭhī | nē´ fŭās | úmquăm.

hī´s ĕgō | dē ártĭbus | grā´tĭam | fă´cĭō.

nī´l ĕgo is|tō´s mŏror | faécĕōs | mō´rēs.id. 267, 293, 297.

Saturnian Verse. In early Latin is found a rude form of verse, not borrowed from the Greek like the others, but as to the precise nature of which scholars are not agreed. The two principal theories only are given. There are numerous variations, particularly of the second theory here stated.

According to one view the verse is based on quantity, is composed of six feet, and is divided into two parts by a cæsura before the fourth thesis. Each thesis may consist of a long syllable or of two short ones, each arsis of a short syllable, a long syllable, or two short syllables; but the arsis, except at the beginning of the verse and before the cæsura, is often entirely suppressed, though rarely more than once in the same verse:— dăbúnt mălúm Mĕtéllī || Naévĭō´ pŏē´tae.

According to another theory the Saturnian is made up, without regard to quantity, of alternating accented and unaccented syllables; but for any unaccented syllable two may be substituted, and regularly are so substituted in the second foot of the verse:— dábunt málum Metéllī || Naéviō´ poē´tae.

EARLY PROSODY

The prosody of the earlier poets differs in several respects from that of the later. Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence of accent. In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early poets. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages.

At the end of words s, being only feebly sounded, does not make position with a following consonant; it sometimes disappeared altogether. This usage continued in all poets till Cicero's time (§ 15. 7).

A long syllable immediately preceded or followed by the ictus may be shortened (iambic shortening):—

In a word of two syllables of which the first is short (this effect remained in a few words like pută , cavĕ,valĕ, vidĕ , egŏ , modŏ , duŏ Cf. ambō (also a dual, p. 59, footnote), in which the ō is retainedbecause of the length of the first syllable. ):— ă´bĭ (Ter. Ph. 59); bŏ´nĭ (id. 516); hŏmŏ suā´vis (id. 411).

If it is either a monosyllable or the first syllable of a word which is preceded by a short monosyllable:— sĕ´d hăs tabellās (Pl. Per. 195) ; quĭ´d hĭc nunc (id. Epid. 157); pĕr ĭnplū´vium (Ter. Ph. 707); ĕgoŏsténderem (id. 793).

When preceded by a short initial syllable in a word of more than three syllables:— vĕnŭstā´tis (Ter. Hec. 848); sĕnĕctū´tem (id. Ph. 434); Syrăcū´sās (Pl. Merc. 37); ămĭcĭ´tia (id. Ps. 1263).

In a few isolated words position is often disregarded. Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle or the extent of this irregularity. Such are ĭlle, ĭmmo, ĭnde, ĭste, ŏmnis , nĕmpe , quĭppe, ŭnde .

The original long quantity of some final syllables is retained.

The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel (original r- stems or original s-stems):— módo quom dícta in mēíngerē´bās ódium nō´nuxō´r erám (Pl. Asin. 927).

íta mī in péctoreátque córde fácitamō´rincéndiúm (id. Merc. 500).

átque quántō nóx fuístīlóngiō´rhāc próxumā´; (id. Am. 548).

The termination -es (-ĭtis) is sometimes retained long, as in mīlēs, superstēs .

All verb-endings in -r, -s, and -t may be retained long where the vowel is elsewhere long in inflection:— régrediō´r audī´sse mē´; (Pl. Capt. 1023); átqueut quī´ fuerīs et quī´ nunc (id. 248); mē nō´minā´t haec (id. Epid. 4.1.8); faciā´t ut sémper (id. Poen. 2.42); īnfuscābāt, amābō (cretics, id. Cist. 1.21); quī amēt (id. Merc. 1021); utfī´t in béllō cápitur álter fī´liús (id. Capt. 25); tibisī´tad mē´ revī´sā´s (id. Truc. 2.4.79).

Hiatus (§ 612. g) is allowed somewhat freely, especially at a pause in the sense, or when there is a change of speaker.

The extent of this license is still a question among scholars; but in the present state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.

MISCELLANEOUS

Reckoning of Time

The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the names of the Consuls; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City ( ab urbe conditā , annō urbis conditae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 754: e.g. A.U.C. 691 (the year of Cicero's consulship) corresponds to B.C. 63.

Before Cæsar's reform of the Calendar (B.C. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 days: March, May, Quīntīlis (July), and October having each 31 days, February having 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this calendar year was too short for the solar year, the Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion of the pontificēs, inserted a month of varying length ( mēnsis intercalāris ) after February 23, and omitted the rest of February. The “Julian year,” by Cæsar's reformed Calendar, had 365 days, divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (VI. Kal. Mārt.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month: hence the year was called bissextīlis. The month Quīntīlis received the name Iūlius (July), in honor of Julius Cæsar; and Sextīlis was called Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar (A.D. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years.

Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are reckoned as follows:—

The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends). Kalendae is derived from calāre , to call ,—the Calends being the day on which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calāta . This they did, originally, from actual observation.

On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the other months, were the Īdūs (Ides), the day of Full Moon.

On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the fifth of the other months, were the Nōnae (Nones or ninths).

From the three points thus determined, the days of the month were reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the Ides, or the Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives the following rule for determining the date:—

If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in the month preceding,—if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall,—and from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date. Thus,— VIII. Kal. Feb. (31 + 2 - 8) = Jan. 25.

IV. Nōn. Mār. (7 + 1 - 4) = Mar. 4.

IV. Īd. Sept. (13 + 1 - 4) = Sept. 10.

The name of the month appears as an adjective in agreement with Kalendae , Nōnae , Īdūs .

For peculiar constructions in dates, see § 424. g.

The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus ascertained, are given in the following table:—

Measures of Value, etc.

The money of the Romans was in early times wholly of copper. The unit was the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but actually somewhat less. It was divided into twelve unciae (ounces).

In the third century B.C. the as was gradually reduced to one-half of its original value. In the same century silver coins were introduced,—the dēnārius and the sēstertius . The denarius = 10 asses; the sestertius = 21/2 asses.

The Sestertius was probably introduced at a time when the as had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (2 1/2 asses) was equivalent to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sestertius (usually abbreviated to HS or HS) came to be used as the unit of value, and nummus, coin, often means simply sēstertius . As the reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to 100 sesterces. The approximate value of these coins is seen in the following table:— 2 1/2 asses = 1 sēstertius or nummus, value nearly 5 cents (2 1/2 d.).

10 asses or 4 sēstertiī = 1 dēnarius. value nearly 20 cents (10 d.).

1000 sēstertiī = 1 sēstertium ... value nearly $50.00 (£10).

The word sēstertius is a shortened form of sēmis-tertius , the third one, a half. The abbreviation S or HS = duo et sēmis , two and a half.

The sēstertium (probably originally the genitive plural of sēstertius depending on mīlle ) was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected regularly as a neuter noun: thus, tria sēstertia = $150.00.

When sēstertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centēna mīlia, hundreds of thousands, is to be understood: thus deciēns sēstertium ( deciēns HS) = deciēns centēna mīlia sēstertium = $50,000. Sēstertium in this combination may also be inflected: deciēns sēstertiī , sēstertiō , etc.

In the statement of large sums sēstertium is often omitted as well as centēna mīlia : thus sexāgiēns (Rosc. Am. 2) signifies, sexāgiēns [ centēna mīlia sēstertium ] = 6,000,000 sesterces=$300,000 (nearly).

In the statement of sums of money in Roman numerals, a line above the number indicates thousands; lines above and at the sides also, hundred-thousands. Thus HS DC=600 sēstertiī; HS DC= 600,000 sēstertiī , or 600 sēstertia; HS |DC|=60,000,000 sēstertiī , or 60,000 sēstertia .

The Roman Measures of Length are the following: — 12 inches (unciae) =1 Roman Foot ( pēs: 11.65 English inches).

1 1/2 Feet=1 Cubit (cubitum).—2 1/2 Feet=1 Step (gradus).

5 Feet=1 Pace (passus).—1000 Paces ( mīlle passuum )= 1 Mile.

The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet.

The iūgerum , or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman) feet long and 120 broad; a little less than 2/3 of an English acre.

The Measures of Weight are—

12 unciae (ounces) =one pound (libra, about 3/4 lb. avoirdupois).

Fractional parts (weight or coin) are —

The Talent (talentum) was a Greek weight ( ta/lanton ) = 60 librae.

The Measures of Capacity are — 12 cyathī =1 sextārius (nearly a pint).

16 sextāriī =1 modius (peck).

6 sextāriī =1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measure).

8 congiī = 1 amphora (6 gallons).

GLOSSARY: OF TERMS USED IN GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND PROSODY

Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early grammarians to forms of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they were using figures at all—as, indeed, they were not. Thus when one says, “It gave me no little pleasure,” he is unconsciously using litotes; when he says, “John went up the street, James down,” antithesis; when he says, “High as the sky,” hyperbole. Many were given under a mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred to. Thus mēd and tēd (§ 143. a. N.) were supposed to owe their d to paragoge , sūmpsī its p to epenthesis. Such a sentence as “See my coat, how well it fits!” was supposed to be an irregularity to be accounted for by prolepsis.

Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often occur; and most of them have an historic interest, of one kind or another.

Grammatical Terms

Anacoluthon: a change of construction in the same sentence, leaving the first part broken or unfinished.

Anastrophe: inversion of the usual order of words.

Apodosis: the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis ).

Archaism: an adoption of old or obsolete forms.

Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions (§ 323. b).

Barbarism: adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms.

Brachylogy: brevity of expression.

Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one (§ 15. 3).

Ellipsis: omission of a word or words necessary to complete the sense.

Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another.

Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable.

Hellenism: use of Greek forms or constructions.

Hendiadys ( e(\n dia\ duoi=n ): the use of two nouns, with a conjunction, instead of a single modified noun.

Hypallage: interchange of constructions.

Hysteron proteron: a reversing of the natural order of ideas.

This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated in language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier and so comes first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial embellishment in Greek, and so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in artless narrative; cf. “Bred and Born in a Brier Bush” (Uncle Remus).

Metathesis: transposition of letters in a word.

Paragoge: addition of a letter or letters to the end of a word.

Parenthesis: insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction.

Periphrasis: a roundabout way of expression (circumlocution).

Pleonasm: the use of needless words.

Polysyndeton: the use of an unnecessary number of copulative conjunctions.

Prolepsis: the use of a word in the clause preceding the one where it would naturally appear (anticipation).

Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression (if, when, whoever), leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis (§ 512).

Syncope: omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word.

Synesis ( cōnstrūctiō ad sēnsum ）: agreement of words according to the sense, and not the grammatical form (§ 280. a).

Tmesis: the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other words (cutting).

This term came from the earlier separation of prepositions (originally adverbs) from the verbs with which they were afterwards joined; so in per ecastor scītus puer, a very fine boy, egad! As this was supposed to be intentional, it was ignorantly imitated in Latin; as in cere- comminuit -brum (Ennius).

Zeugma: the use of a verb or an adjective with two different words, to only one of which it strictly applies (yoking).

Rhetorical Figures

Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances, events, or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth.

Alliteration: the use of several words that begin with the same sound.

Analogy: argument from resemblances.

Anaphora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses (§ 598. f).

Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis: § 598. f).

Antonomasia: use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse:— sint Maecēnātēs, nōn deerunt, Flacce, Marōnēs, so there be patrons (like Mæcenas), poets (like Virgil) will not be lacking, Flaccus (Mart. 8.56.5 ).

illa furia et pestis, that fury and plague (i.e. Clodius); Homēromastīx, scourge of Homer (i.e. Zoilus).

Aposiopesis: an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect.

Catachresis: a harsh metaphor ( abūsiō , misuse of words).

Chiasmus: a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs of phrases (§ 598. f).

Climax: a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning.

Euphemism: the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea:— sī quid eī acciderit, if anything happens to him (i.e. if he dies).

Euphony: the choice of words for their agreeable sound.

Hyperbaton: violation of the usual order of words.

Hyperbole: exaggeration for rhetorical effect.

Irony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary to what is meant.

Litotes: the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (§ 326. c).

Metaphor: the figurative use of words, indicating an object by some resemblance.

Metonymy: the use of the name of one thing to indicate some kindred thing

Onomatopœia: a fitting of sound to sense in the use of words.

Oxymoron: the use of contradictory words in the same phrase:— īnsāniēns sapientia, foolish wisdom.

Paronomasia: the use of words of like sound.

Prosopopœia: personification.

Simile: a figurative comparison (usually introduced by like, or as).

Synchysis: the interlocked order (§ 598. h).

Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for the whole, or the reverse.

Acatalectic: complete, as a verse or a series of feet (§ 612. a).

Anaclasis: breaking up of rhythm by substituting different measures.

Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding a verse (§ 608. g）

Antistrophe: a series of verses corresponding to one which has gone before (cf. strophe).

Arsis: the unaccented part of a foot (§ 611).

Basis: a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse.

Cæsura: the ending of a word within a metrical foot (§ 611. b).

Catalectic: see Catalexis.

Catalexis: loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series catalectic (incomplete, § 612. a).

Contraction: the use of one long syllable for two short (§ 610).

Correption: shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons.

Diœresis: the coincidence of the end of a foot with the end of a word within the verse (§ 611. c).

Dialysis: the use of i (consonant) and v as vowels ( silüa = silva , § 603. f. N.4).

Diastole: the lengthening of a short syllable by emphasis (§ 612. b).

Dimeter: consisting of two like measures.

Dipody: consisting of two like feet.

Distich: a system or series of two verses.

Ecthlipsis: the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word beginning with a vowel (§ 612. f.).

Elision: the cutting off of a final before a following initial vowel (§ 612. e).

Heptameter: consisting of seven feet.

Hexameter: consisting of six measures.

Hexapody: consisting of six feet.

Hiatus: the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision (§ 612. g).

Ictus: the metrical accent (§ 611. a).

Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time (§ 609. e).

Logaœdic: varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose (§ 623).

Monometer: consisting of a single measure.

Mora: the unit of time, equal to one short syllable (§ 608. a).

Pentameter: consisting of five measures.

Pentapody: consisting of five feet.

Penthemimeris: consisting of five half-feet.

Protraction: extension of a syllable beyond its normal length (608. c).

Resolution: the use of two short syllables for one long (§ 610).

Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (stanza), which may be indefinitely repeated.

Synœresis: i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel (§ 603. c. N., f. N.4).

Synalœpha: the same as elision (§ 612. e. N.).

Synapheia: elision between two verses (§ 612. e. N.).

Syncope: loss of a short vowel.

Synizesis: the running together of two vowels without full contraction (§ 603 c. N.).

Systole: shortening of a syllable regularly long.

Tetrameter: consisting of four measures.

Tetrapody: consisting of four feet.

Tetrastich: a system of four verses.

Thesis: the accented part of a foot (§ 611).

Trimeter: consisting of three measures.

Tripody: consisting of three feet.

Tristich: a system of three verses.