Declension

12. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or quality; as, Caesar, Caesar; Rōma, Rome; penna, feather; virtūs, courage.

1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are permanent names of persons or places; as, Caesar, Rōma. Other nouns are Common: as, penna, virtūs.

2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.

a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects; as, mōns, mountain; pēs, foot; diēs, day; mēns, mind.

Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legiō, legion; comitātus, retinue.

b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, cōnstantia, steadfastness; paupertās, poverty.

GENDER OF NOUNS.

13. There are three Genders,—Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or grammatical.

Natural Gender.

14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons; and these are—

1. Masculine, if they denote males; as,—

nauta, sailor; agricola, farmer.

2. Feminine, if they denote females; as,—

māter, mother; rēgīna, queen.

Grammatical Gender.

15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the Nominative Singular. The following are the general principles for determining grammatical gender:—

A. Gender determined by Signification.

1. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months are Masculine; as,—

Sēquana, Seine; Eurus, east wind; Aprīlis, April.

2. Names of Trees, and such names of Towns and Islands as end in -us, are Feminine; as,—

quercus, oak; Corinthus, Corinth; Rhodus, Rhodes.

Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see B, below); as,—

Delphī, n.; Leuctra, n.; Tībur, n.; Carthāgō, f.

3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as,—

nihil, nothing; nefās, wrong; amāre, to love.

NOTE.—Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia (the river), f.

B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular.

The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative Singular.[11]

NOTE 1.—Common Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes Masculine, sometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdōs may mean either priest or priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also cīvis, citizen; parēns, parent; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be common.

NOTE 2.—Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, ānser, m., goose or gander. So vulpēs, f., fox; aquīla, f., eagle.

NUMBER.

16. The Latin has two Numbers,—the Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object, the Plural, more than one.

CASES.

17. There are six Cases in Latin:—

1. LOCATIVE. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words.

2. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases.

3. STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS. The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.[12] Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured. The apparent case-ending thus resulting is called a termination.

THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.

18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows:—

Cases alike in Form.

19. 1. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension.

2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.

3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in -ă.

4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like the Nominative.

FIRST DECLENSION.

ā-Stems.

20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regularly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -ă, weakened from -ā, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are declined as follows:—

1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either a gate or the gate; and in the Plural, gates or the gates.

Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension.

21. 1. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, nauta, sailor; agricola, farmer; also, Hadria, Adriatic Sea.

2. Rare Case-Endings,—

a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -ās is preserved in the combination pater familiās, father of a family; also in māter familiās, fīlius familiās, fīlia familiās. But the regular form of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in these expressions; as, pater familiae.

b) In poetry a Genitive in -āī also occurs; as, aulāī.

c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as, Rōmae, at Rome.

d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -ārum sometimes occurs; as, Dardanidum instead of Dardanidārum. This termination -um is not a contraction of -ārum, but represents an entirely different case-ending.

e) Instead of the regular ending -īs, we usually find -ābus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, and fīlia, daughter, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus, god, and fīlius, son. A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity; as, lībertābus (from līberta, freedwoman), equābus (mares), to avoid confusion with lībertīs (from lībertus, freedman) and equīs (from equus, horse).

Greek Nouns.

22. These end in -ē (Feminine); -ās and -ēs (Masculine). In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined as follows:—

1. But most Greek nouns in -ē become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are declined like porta; as, grammatica, grammar; mūsica, music; rhētorica, rhetoric.

2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.

SECOND DECLENSION.

ŏ-Stems.

23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculine was -os; and -um of the Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative.

Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows:—

Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows:—

1. Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular.

In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further modified by the development of e before r.

2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer: adulter, adulterer; gener, son-in-law; Līber, Bacchus; socer, father-in-law; vesper, evening; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger.

Nouns in -vus, -vum, -quus.

24. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin,—an earlier and a later,—as follows:—

1. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform.

Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension.

25. 1. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -ī (instead of -iī), and the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); as Vergílī, of Virgil, or O Virgil (instead of Vergiliī, Vergilie). In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. Nouns in -ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -aī, -eī, as Pompejus, Pompeī.

2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -i (instead of -iī); as,—

These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short.

3. Fīlius forms the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); viz. fīlī, O son!

4. Deus, god, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected as follows:—

5. The Locative Singular ends in -ī; as, Corinthī, at Corinth.

6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -ōrum,—

a) in words denoting money and measure; as, talentum, of talents; modium, of pecks; sēstertium, of sesterces.

b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum.

c) sometimes in other words; as, līberum, of the children; socium, of the allies.

Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension.

26. 1. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception:—

a) Names of towns, islands, trees—according to the general rule laid down in § 15, 2; also some names of countries; as Aegyptus, Egypt.

b) Five special words,—

alvus, belly;

carbasus, flax;

colus, distaff;

humus, ground;

vannus, winnowing-fan.

c) A few Greek Feminines; as,—

atomus, atom;

diphthongus, diphthong.

2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter:—

pelagus, sea;

vīrus, poison;

vulgus, crowd.

Greek Nouns of the Second Declension.

27. These end in -os, -ōs, Masculine or Feminine; and -on, Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are declined as follows:—

1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um instead of -on; as, Dēlum, Delos.

2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular.

3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be consulted.

THIRD DECLENSION.

28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -ī, -ō, -y, -c, -l, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of Stems,—

I. Consonant-Stems.

29. 1. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique cases, so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized.

2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant.

A. Mute-Stems.

30. Mute-Stems may end,—

1. In a Labial (p); as, prīncep-s.

2. In a Guttural (g or c); as, rēmex (rēmeg-s); dux (duc-s).

3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); mīles (mīlet-s).

1. STEMS IN A LABIAL MUTE (p).

31. Prīnceps, m., chief.

2. STEMS IN A GUTTURAL MUTE (g, c).

32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thus producing -x.

3. STEMS IN A DENTAL MUTE (d, t).

33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nominative Singular before the ending -s.

B. Liquid Stems.

34. These end in -l or -r.

1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nominative and Vocative Singular without termination.

2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension.

C. Nasal Stems.

35. These end in -n,[13] which often disappears in the Nom. Sing.

D. s-Stems.

36.

1. Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the oblique cases. In many words (honor, color, and the like) the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative, displacing the earlier s, though the forms honōs, colōs, etc., also occur, particularly in early Latin and in poetry.

II. ĭ-Stems.

A. Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems.

37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singular, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular in -ī, and the Accusative Plural in -īs; but these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -ēs, the endings of Consonant-Stems.

38.

1. To the same class belong—

Words marked with a star regularly have Acc. -im; those marked with a † regularly have Abl. -ī. Of the others, many at times show -im and -ī. Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -ī.

2. Not all nouns in -is are ĭ-Stems. Some are genuine consonant-stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, notably, canis, dog; juvenis, youth.[14]

3. Some genuine ĭ-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular; as, pars, part, for par(ti)s; anas, duck, for ana(ti)s; so also mors, death; dōs, dowry; nox, night; sors, lot; mēns, mind; ars, art; gēns, tribe; and some others.

B. Neuter ĭ-Stems.

39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar. They always have -ī in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems.

1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e.

2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e; as, Sōracte, Mt. Soracte; so also sometimes mare, sea.

III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of ĭ-Stems.

40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted themselves to the inflection of ĭ-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural, and -īs in the Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singular, or -ī in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this class:—

1. The following classes of nouns belong here:—

a) Nouns in -ēs, with Genitive in -is; as, nūbēs, aedēs, clādēs, etc.

b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants; as, urbs, mōns, stirps, lanx.

c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs as, cliēns, cohors.

d) Ūter, venter; fūr, līs, mās, mūs, nix; and the Plurals faucēs, penātēs, Optimātēs, Samnitēs, Quirītēs.

e) Sometimes nouns in -tās with Genitive -tātis; as, cīvitās, aetās. Cīvitās usually has cīvitātium.

IV. Stems in -ī, -ū, and Diphthongs.

41.

1. Notice that the oblique cases of sūs have ŭ in the root syllable.

2. Grūs is declined like sūs, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus.

3. Juppiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-ī, etc.

Nāvis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over to the ĭ-stems (§ 37). Its ablative often ends in -ī.

V. Irregular Nouns.

42.

1. Iter, itineris, n., way, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem itiner-.

2. Supellex, supellectilis, f., furniture, is confined to the Singular. The oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The ablative has both -ī and -e.

3. Jecur, n., liver, forms its oblique cases from two stems,—jecor- and jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris.

4. Femur, n., thigh, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-, but sometimes from the stem femin-. Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis.

General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension.

43. 1. Nouns in -ō, -or, -ōs, -er, -ĕs are Masculine.

2. Nouns in -ās, -ēs, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -dō, -gō (Genitive -inis); -iō (abstract and collective), -ūs (Genitive -ātis or -ūdis) are Feminine.

3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -o, -l, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -ŭs are Neuter.

Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension.

44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines.

1. Nouns in -ō.

a. Feminine: carō, flesh.

2. Nouns in -or.

a. Feminine: arbor, tree.

b. Neuter: aequor, sea; cor, heart; marmor, marble.

3. Nouns in -ōs.

a. Feminine: dōs, dowry.

b. Neuter: ōs (ōris), mouth.

4. Nouns in -er.

a. Feminine: linter, skiff.

b. Neuter: cadāver, corpse; iter, way; tūber, tumor; ūber, udder. Also botanical names in -er; as, acer, maple.

5. Nouns in -ĕs.

a. Feminine: seges, crop.

45. Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines.

1. Nouns in -ās.

a. Masculine: vās, bondsman.

b. Neuter: vās, vessel.

2. Nouns in -ēs.

a. Masculine: ariēs, ram; pariēs, wall; pēs, foot.

3. Nouns in -is.

a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis; as, amnis, river; īgnis, fire; pānis, bread; sanguis, blood; unguis, nail.

Also—

4. Nouns in -x.

a. Masculine: apex, peak; cōdex, tree-trunk; grex, flock; imbrex, tile; pollex, thumb; vertex, summit; calix, cup.

5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant.

a. Masculine: dēns, tooth; fōns, fountain; mōns, mountain; pōns, bridge.

6. Nouns in -dō.

a. Masculine: cardō, hinge; ōrdō, order.

46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters.

1. Nouns in -l.

a. Masculine: sōl, sun; sāl, salt.

2. Nouns in -n.

a. Masculine: pecten, comb.

3. Nouns in -ur.

a. Masculine: vultur, vulture.

4. Nouns in -ŭs.

a. Masculine: lepus, hare.

Greek Nouns of the Third Declension.

47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these:—

1. The ending -ă in the Accusative Singular; as, aetheră, aether; Salamīnă, Salamis.

2. The ending -ĕs in the Nominative Plural; as, Phrygĕs, Phrygians.

3. The ending -ăs in the Accusative Plural; as, Phrygăs, Phrygians.

4. Proper names in -ās (Genitive -antis) have -ā in the Vocative Singular; as, Atlās (Atlantis), Vocative Atlā, Atlas.

5. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -īs instead of -ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural; as, poēmatīs, poems.

6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.). But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension; as, Orpheī, Orpheō, etc.

7. Proper names in -ēs, like Periclēs, form the Genitive Singular sometimes in -is, sometimes in -ī, as, Periclis or Periclī.

8. Feminine proper names in -ō have -ūs in the Genitive, but -ō in the other oblique cases; as,—

9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns.

FOURTH DECLENSION.

ŭ-Stems.

48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Masculine, and -ū Neuter. They are declined as follows:—

Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension.

49. 1. Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -ī, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second Declension; as, senātī, ōrnātī. This is usually the case in Plautus and Terence.

2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -ū in the Dative Singular, instead of -uī; as, frūctū (for frūctuī).

3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative Plural of artūs (Plural), limbs; tribus, tribe; and in dis-syllables in -cus; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus.

4. Domus, house, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has also the following forms of the Second:—

domī (locative), at home;

domō, from home;

domum, homewards, to one's home;

domōs, homewards, to their (etc.) homes

5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are: cornū, horn; genū, knee; and verū, spit.

Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.

50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, needle; domus, house; manus, hand; porticus, colonnade; tribus, tribe; Īdūs (Plural), Ides; also names of trees (§ 15, 2).

FIFTH DECLENSION.

ē-Stems.

51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -ēs, and are declined as follows:—

Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension.

52. 1. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -ĕī, instead of -ēī, when a consonant precedes; as, spĕī, rĕī, fidĕī.

2. A Genitive ending -ī (for -ĕī) is found in plēbī (from plēbēs = plēbs) in the expressions tribūnus plēbī, tribune of the people, and plēbī scītum, decree of the people; sometimes also in other words.

3. A Genitive and Dative form in -ē sometimes occurs; as, aciē.

4. With the exception of diēs and rēs, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in the Plural. But aciēs, seriēs, speciēs, spēs, and a few others are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural.

Gender in the Fifth Declension.

53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except diēs, day, and merīdiēs, mid-day. But diēs is sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an appointed day.

DEFECTIVE NOUNS.

54. Here belong—

1. Nouns used in the Singular only.

2. Nouns used in the Plural only.

3. Nouns used only in certain cases.

4. Indeclinable Nouns.

Nouns used in the Singular only.

55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus:—

1. Proper names; as, Cicerō, Cicero; Italia, Italy.

2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk.

3. Abstract nouns; as, ignōrantia, ignorance; bonitās, goodness.

4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural. Thus:—

a) Proper names,—to denote different members of a family, or specimens of a type; as, Cicerōnēs, the Ciceros; Catōnēs, men like Cato.

b) Names of materials,—to denote objects made of the material, or different kinds of the substance; as, aera, bronzes (i.e. bronze figures); ligna, woods.

c) Abstract nouns,—to denote instances of the quality; as, ignōrantiae, cases of ignorance.

Nouns used in the Plural only.

56. Here belong—

1. Many geographical names; as, Thēbae, Thebes; Leuctra, Leuctra; Pompejī, Pompeii.

2. Many names of festivals; as, Megalēsia, the Megalesian festival.

3. Many special words, of which the following are the most important:—

Also in classical prose regularly—

Nouns used only in Certain Cases.

57. 1. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular as, jussū, by the order; injussū, without the order; nātū, by birth.

2. Used in Two Cases.

a. Fors (chance), Nom. Sing.; forte, Abl. Sing.

b. Spontis (free-will), Gen. Sing.; sponte, Abl. Sing.

3. Used in Three Cases. Nēmō, no one (Nom.), has also the Dat. nēminī and the Acc. nēminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases of nūllus; viz. nūllīus and nūllō.

4. Impetus has the Nom., Acc., and Abl. Sing., and the Nom. and Acc. Plu.; viz. impetus, impetum, impetū, impetūs.

5.

a. Precī, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing.

b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing.

6. Opis, dapis, and frūgis,—all lack the Nom. Sing.

7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.: as, cor, lūx, sōl, aes, ōs (ōris), rūs, sāl, tūs.

Indeclinable Nouns.

58. Here belong—

1. With the exception of māne (which may serve also as Ablative, in the morning), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular.

Heteroclites.

59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another. Thus:—

1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the Plural is of another; as,—

2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have certain special forms belonging to another. Thus:—

a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and Acc. of the Fifth; as, māteriēs, māteriem, material, as well as māteria, māteriam.

b) Famēs, hunger, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. famē of the Fifth.

c) Requiēs, requiētis, rest, regularly of the Third Declension, takes an Acc. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requiētem.

d) Besides plēbs, plēbis, common people, of the Third Declension, we find plēbēs, plēbĕī (also plēbī, see § 52, 2), of the Fifth.

Heterogeneous Nouns.

60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus:—

1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,—one Masc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, shield; carrus, carrum, cart.

2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural; as,—

a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case of the first two examples above.

Plurals with Change of Meaning.

61. The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in the Plural:—

B. ADJECTIVES.

62. Adjectives denote quality. They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes,—

1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

2. Adjectives of the Third Declension.

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.

63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum. Thus, Masculine like hortus:—

1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in -iī (not in -ī as in case of Nouns; see § 25, 1; 2). So also the Voc. Sing. of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in ī. Thus eximius forms Gen. eximiī; Voc. eximie.

2. Distributives (see § 78, 1, c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc. and Neut. in -um instead of -ōrum (compare § 25, 6); as, dēnum centēnum; but always singulōrum.

64. Masculine like puer:—

65. Masculine like ager:—

1. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following however, are declined like tener: asper, rough; lacer, torn; līber, free; miser, wretched; prōsper, prosperous; compounds in -fer and -ger; sometimes dexter, right.

2. Satur, full, is declined: satur, satura, saturum.

Nine Irregular Adjectives.

66. Here belong—

They are declined as follows:—

1. All these words lack the Vocative. The Plural is regular.

2. Neuter is declined like uter.

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.

67. These fall into three classes,—

1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular,—one for each gender.

2. Adjectives of two terminations.

3. Adjectives of one termination.

a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in § 70, 1, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of ĭ-stems; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -ī, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -īs (as well as -ēs) in the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in -ia in Neuters.

Adjectives of Three Terminations.

68. These are declined as follows:—

1. Like ācer are declined alacer, lively; campester, level; celeber, famous; equester, equestrian; palūster, marshy; pedester, pedestrian; puter, rotten; salūber, wholesome; silvester, woody; terrester, terrestrial; volucer, winged; also names of months in -ber, as September.

2. Celer, celeris, celere, swift, retains the e before r, but lacks the Genitive Plural.

3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Feminine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of salūbris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry.

Adjectives of Two Terminations.

69. These are declined as follows:—

1. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly declined in the same way. The Acc. Plu. in -īs is rare.

Adjectives of One Termination.

70.

1. It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant-Stem; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -ēs only. In the same way are declined compos, controlling; dīves, rich; particeps, sharing; pauper, poor; prīnceps, chief; sōspes, safe; superstes, surviving. Yet dīves always has Neut. Plu. dītia.

2. Inops, needy, and memor, mindful, have Ablative Singular inopī, memorī, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum.

3. Participles in -āns and -ēns follow the declension of ī-stems. But they do not have -ī the Ablative, except when employed as adjectives; when used as participles or as substantives, they have -e; as,—

ā sapientī virō, by a wise man; but

ā sapiente, by a philosopher.

Tarquiniō rēgnante, under the reign of Tarquin.

4. Plūs, in the Singular, is always a noun.

5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives,—

a) usually retain the adjective declension; as,—

aequālis, contemporary, Abl. aequālī.

cōnsulāris, ex-consul, Abl. cōnsulārī

So names of Months; as, Aprīlī, April; Decembrī, December.

b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular; as, Celere, Celer; Juvenāle, Juvenal.

c) Patrials in -ās, -ātis and -īs, -ītis, when designating places regularly have -ī; as, in Arpīnātī, on the estate at Arpinum, yet -e, when used of persons; as, ab Arpīnāte, by an Arpinatian.

6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frūgī, frugal; nēquam, worthless.

7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form the Gen. Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venientum, of those coming.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

71. 1. There are three degrees of Comparison,—the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel; as,—

So also Participles, when used as Adjectives; as,—

3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus:—

a. Notice mātūrus, mātūrior, mātūrissimus or mātūrrimus.

4. Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Comparative is regular. Thus:—

5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative and Superlative as though from forms in -dīcēns, -ficēns, -volēns. Thus:—

a. Positives in -dīcēns and -volēns occur in early Latin; as maledīcēns, benevolēns.

6. Dīves has the Comparative dīvitior or dītior; Superlative dīvitissimus or dītissimus.

Irregular Comparison.

72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; viz.—

Defective Comparison.

73. 1. Positive lacking entirely,—

2. Positive occurring only in special cases,—

3. Comparative lacking.

Also in some other words less frequently used.

4. Superlative lacking.

a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -ālis, -īlis, -ĭlis, -bilis, and in a few others.

Comparison by Magis and Maximē.

74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (more) and maximē (most). Here belong—

1. Many adjectives ending in -ālis, -āris, -idus, -īlis, -icus, imus, īnus, -ōrus.

2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idōneus, adapted; arduus, steep; necessārius, necessary.

a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant.

Adjectives not admitting Comparison.

75. Here belong—

1. Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do not admit of comparison; as, hodiernus, of to-day; annuus, annual; mortālis, mortal.

2. Some special words; as, mīrus, gnārus, merus; and a few others.

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives, and depend upon them for their comparison.

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -ī of the Genitive Singular to -ē; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive Singular to -iter; as,—

a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead of -iter), to form the Adverb; as,—

Note audāx, audācter, boldly.

2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accusative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective; while the Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -ī of the Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -ē. Thus—

Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation.

77. 1.

2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an Adverb in -ō, instead of -ē; as,—

a. cito, quickly, has -ŏ.

3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the Positive of the Adverb; as,—

4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive in -iter; as,—

a. violentus has violenter.

5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of which are -tus and -tim; as, antīquitus, anciently; paulātim, gradually.

NUMERALS.

78. Numerals may be divided into—

I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising—

a. Cardinals; as, ūnus, one; duo, two; etc.

b. Ordinals; as, prīmus, first; secundus, second; etc.

c. Distributives; as, singulī, one by one; bīnī, two by two; etc.

II. Numeral Adverbs; as, semel, once; bis, twice; etc.

79. TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

NOTE.— -ēnsimus and -iēns are often written in the numerals instead of -ēsimus and -iēs.

Declension of the Cardinals.

80. 1. The declension of ūnus has already been given under § 66.

2. Duo is declined as follows:—

a. So ambō, both, except that its final o is long.

3. Trēs is declined,—

4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of bonus.

5. Mīlle is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable. In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive of the objects enumerated; § 201, 1), and is declined,—

Thus mīlle hominēs, a thousand men; but duo mīlia hominum, two thousand men, literally two thousands of men.

a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction; as, mīlle hominum.

6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives are declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals.

81. 1. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with the larger or the smaller numeral first. In the latter case, et is used. Thus:—

trīgintā sex or sex et trīgintā, thirty-six.

2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed by subtraction; as,—

duodēvīgintī, eighteen (but also octōdecim);

ūndēquadrāgintā, thirty-nine (but also trīgintā novem or novem et trīgintā).

3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first; the others follow without et; as,—

centum vīgintī septem, one hundred and twenty-seven.

annō octingentēsimō octōgēsimō secundō, in the year 882.

Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit or one of the tens; as,—

centum et septem, one hundred and seven;

centum et quadrāgintā, one hundred and forty.

4. The Distributives are used—

a) To denote so much each, so many apiece; as,—

bīna talenta eīs dedit, he gave them two talents each.

b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense; as,—

bīnae litterae, two epistles.

But in such cases, ūnī (not singulī) is regularly employed for one, and trīnī (not ternī) for three; as,—

ūnae litterae, one epistle; trīnae litterae, three epistles.

c) In multiplication; as,—

bis bīna sunt quattuor, twice two are four.

d) Often in poetry, instead of the cardinals; as,—

bīna hastīlia, two spears.

C. PRONOUNS.

82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something without naming it.

83. There are the following classes of pronouns:—

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

84. These correspond to the English I, you, he, she, it, etc., and are declined as follows:—

1. A Dative Singular mī occurs in poetry.

2. Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as, egomet, I myself; tibimet, to you yourself; tū has tūte and tūtemet (written also tūtimet).

3. In early Latin, mēd and tēd occur as Accusative and Ablative forms.

II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand; like myself, yourself, in 'I see myself,' etc. They are declined as follows:—

1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for all genders and for both numbers. Thus sui may mean, of himself, herself, itself, or of themselves; and so with the other forms.

2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a reciprocal force; as,—

inter sē pugnant, they fight with each other.

3. In early Latin, sēd occurs as Accusative and Ablative.

III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are inflected as such. They are—

1. Suus is exclusively Reflexive; as,—

pater līberōs suōs amat, the father loves his children.

Otherwise, his, her, its are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singular of is, viz. ejus; and their by the Genitive Plural, eōrum, eārum.

2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mī.

3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis. This is particularly common in case of suō, suā; as, suōpte, suāpte.

IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

87. These point out an object as here or there, or as previously mentioned. They are—

hīc, this (where I am);

iste, that (where you are);

ille, that (something distinct from the speaker);

is, that (weaker than ille);

īdem, the same.

Hīc, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons respectively.

Ille (archaic olle), that, that one, he, is declined like iste.[25]

The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has īdem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu. īsdem or iīsdem

V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.

88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corresponds to the English myself, etc., in 'I myself, he himself.'

VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

89. The Relative Pronoun is quī, who. It is declined:—

VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quis, who? (substantive) and quī, what? what kind of? (adjective).

1. Quis, who?

2. Quī, what? what kind of? is declined precisely like the Relative Pronoun; viz. quī, quae, quod, etc.

a. An old Ablative quī occurs, in the sense of how? why?

b. Quī is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions.

c. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective. But in such cases quis homō = what man? whereas quī homō = what sort of man?

d. Quis and quī may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus:—

VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

91. These have the general force of some one, any one.

1. In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined. Thus: Genitive Singular alicūjus, cūjuslibet, etc.

2. Note that aliquī has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Feminine, also in the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. Quī has both qua and quae in these same cases.

3. Quīdam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam; Genitive Plural quōrundam, quārundam; the m being assimilated to n before d.

4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliquī substantively.

5. In combination with nē, sī, nisi, num, either quis or quī may stand as a Substantive. Thus: sī quis or sī quī.

6. Ecquis, any one, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has interrogative force. It has both substantive and adjective forms,—substantive, ecquis, ecquid; adjective, ecquī, ecquae and ecqua, ecquod.

7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural.

8. There are two Indefinite Relatives,—quīcumque and quisquis, whoever. Quīcumque declines only the first part; quisquis declines both but has only quisquis, quidquid, quōquō, in common use.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

92. The following adjectives, also, frequently have pronominal force:—

1.

2. The compounds,—

uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two;

utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whoever of two;

uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, either one you please;

utervīs, utravīs, utrumvīs, either one you please;

alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other.

In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both parts; as,—

CHAPTER II.—Conjugation.

93. A Verb is a word which asserts something; as, est, he is; amat, he loves. The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation.

94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person:—

1. Two Voices,—Active and Passive.

2. Three Moods,—Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.

3. Six Tenses,—

But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect; while the Imperative employs only the Present and Future.

4. Two Numbers,—Singular and Plural.

5. Three Persons,—First, Second, and Third.

95. These make up the so-called Finite Verb. Besides this, we have the following Noun and Adjective Forms:—

1. Noun Forms,—Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine.

2. Adjective Forms,—Participles (including the Gerundive).

96. The Personal Endings of the Verb are,—

VERB STEMS.